Functionalisam, Marxism, Feminism, Postmodernism - Essay Example

? Sociology Portfolio. Contents The Theory of Functionalism…………………………………………………… 3 Images of Functionalism………………………………………………………… 5 How Functionalism relates to clients…………………………………………… 6 How Functionalism relates to me as an individual……………………………. 7 References………………………………………………………………………... 7 The Theory of Marxism………………………………………………………… 8 Images of Marxism……………………………………………………………… 9 How Marxism relates to clients………………………………………………… 10 How Marxism relates to me as an individual………………………………….. 11 References……………………………………………………………………….. 12 The Theory of Feminism……………………………………………………….. 12 Images of Feminism…………………………………………………………….. 14 How Feminism relates to clients………………………………………………. 15 How Feminism relates to me as an individual……………………………….. 16 References……………………………………………………………………… 17 The Theory of Postmodernism……………………………………………….. 17 Images of Postmodernism…………………………………………………….. 18 How Postmodernism relates to clients……………………………………….. 20 How Postmodernism relates to me as an individual………………………… 20 References……………………………………………………………………… 21 The Theory of Functionalism As its name suggests, functionalism is a theory which views society as a set of different pieces which carry out different functions and yet fit together into a larger whole. According to this theory the various institutions that make up society such as schools, hospitals, governments etc. must be seen as being dependent on each other in a chain. A good way of thinking about this is to imagine a factory which is putting together a car. All the workers do their jobs in an organized way so that the raw mateirals come together and form a motor vehicle. The wheels take care of contact with the road, while the engine turns fuel into forward movement. The seats carry the people and the steering wheel gives direction. Each piece would make no sense without the others, because they are designed with all the other parts in mind. Another image which can explain functionalism is the human body. Each organ has a different function but together the whole collection of organs is necessary for human life. The origins of functionalism can be seen in the works of French scholar Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) who uses knowledge gained from the sciences to analyse the social world. Durkheim viewed institutions as units in a system all working towards the stability and integration of that system (Abercrombie and Hill, 2006, p. 158). Critics say that he was too positive about the nature of society, and not able to account for the problems that can occur, but certainly his ideas have been very influential. The American sociologist Talcott Parsons used functionalist ideas and adapted them in his theories about the way that people change their behaviour when they enter a domain such as a hospital which is governed by distinct rules. A person who is normally very active and makes decisions for himself will turn into a passive and obedient patient in a hospital, because this part of society operates on different rules than other parts. People who do not behave well in a hospital are asked to leave, and there is a lot of pressure to conform to the regime that the doctors dictate. People would not normally accept being told what to do, but in a hospital they put aside their normal self and play a different role. The doctor’s function is to heal and the patient’s function is to get well and the whole institution is geared up to keep people healthy. This work shows that institutions have an effect on people, sometimes good, and sometimes bad. A key feature of traditional and modern functionalism is that it views society as self-regulating. If one part of the system changes, then all the other parts of the system will automatically change to compensate for this. An example of a functionalist analysis can be seen in the way that countries experience boom and bust cycles in the economy. Right now the world is experiencing a recession, which causes the government in many countries to hold back expenditure, but in other times investment is high, and the governments spend more and expands its reach. There are big implications for jobs, welfare, housing and education in both of these situations, and all the institutions gradually adjust to the changes, just as an automobile slows down going up a hill, and speeds up when coming down. One feature of functionalism that is important is the issue of authority. Doctors have a function of control in hospitals and prison guard play this role in prisons (Anonymous, 2011) which is all very well, if these people act properly. Too often in society this power is abused, and people can become casualties of the system because of this. I think part of the problem with society can be explained by the abuse of power inside institutions and this is something that we need to work on in the future. In Australia in the past there have been decisions and practices which have disadvantage indigenous groups, and according to functionalism this is a serious problem for all of society because everything is connected and bad events in one part of society can cause many bad consequences in other parts also. On the other hand, when these problems are solved, the benefits can be felt by everyone and society is much richer and more stable when citizens enjoy equal rights. Images of Functionalism Source: http://www.drawanywhere.com/live/73a3465399857.aspx [This image above is a flow chart, which is an ideal method used to show functionalism at work. Phenomena and theories feed into each other, which shows interconnectedness and everything fits together into one big system.] Source: http://www2.uiah.fi/projects/metodi/13k.htm [This image above shows how everything in a hospital is geared to its primary function, and people have to give up their freedom and individuality and adapt to this regime. The layout of the room makes it easy for doctors to attend to the patients, but there is not much privacy for the patients. They are treated like boxes in a factory. This image shows how functionalism changes architecture, and the architecture changes behaviour, because all of those systems have effects on each other. How Functionalism relates to clients Some clients do not seem to fit very well into society, and this causes them distress. I think very often people do not have the skills to work out what the hidden function of institutions really is. One example is the case of repeat offenders who have a hard time in prison and an even harder time when they are released back into society. Sometimes they see only the immediate restrictions that are placed on them, and they do not always work out the connections between things. This is why programs which involve offenders meeting their victims can have a very positive effect. In families also it is important for clients to understand the value of parenting because this is a vital contribution to society which can help a child to learn skills which will enable him or her to perform useful and positive roles in society. One of the implications of functionalism is that it highlights the need for education in the way that parts of society fit together. When people get trapped in a dysfunctional situation, they need to be helped to understand what the root of their problem is, and to find ways back into society where they can live their lives more in tune with everyone else. How Functionalism relates to me as an individual I realize that functionalism is a useful tool but I think also that there is room for individuals to make a difference on a one by one basis. I do not like to think of myself as just one small part in a big machine. I prefer to think of myself and my colleagues as teams who can change direction within limits. For me it is important to see an impact of my work, in terms of a difference to other people in their lives. I think if society is a system, then sometimes that system is broken. The system only cares for itself, but as a social worker, I am there to care for each human part, and not just the system as a whole. I believe in the rules that keep the system going. I will always keep within the guidelines that are given to professionals in my job but I believe more in the power of people to change their own lives, and to help each other. References Abercrombie, N. and Hill, S. (2006) The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology. Sixth edition. New York: Penguin. Anonymous. Illness and Sick-Role Behavior. Encylopedia of Public Health. (2011) Retrieved from : http://www.enotes.com/public-health-encyclopedia/illness-sick-role-behavior The Theory of Marxism Marxism is a political theory developed by Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). It arose in the nineteenth century at a time when industrialization in Europe was at its height. Many ordinary workers were being paid very low wages, and working very long hours with all kinds of dangers and risks. Meanwhile, rich company owners were making vast amounts of money and living a life of luxury because they took all the profits from the industry for their own benefit. The fundamental idea behind Marxism is that the money (or capital, as he calls it) should be shared out equally among all the workers, and not taken by the bosses. In order to achieve this aim, it is necessary for the exploited workers to mobilise and struggle against the upper classes. This aspect of the theory means that it is known as a theory of conflict. At the time when it was first introduced in books and pamphlets, Marxism was regarded as something radical and dangerous. Most people accepted the different social classes as if they were fixed for ever, and although the working classes suffered greatly, they did not want to upset the class system. It was only through systematic activism and persuasion that Marxist ideas began to be listened to. Trade Unions owe a great deal to Marxist thinking, because they are a means of obtaining fair working conditions for the ordinary workers. Ultimately the ideas of Marx and Engels lie at the heart of the Russian Revolution, and the Cultural Revolution in China. In these two contexts quite extreme actions were taken to force Marxist ideas on the whole country. Educated people were thrown out of their good jobs and fine houses, and the workers took over instead. Not many countries have retained Marxism as their core system, but most countries owe a considerable debt to Marxist thinkers for shaking up outdated practices and making the rights and needs of the workers known. In sociology, Marxist thinkers homed in on the idea of power, and of oppression, showing how some social practices are fundamentally biased against certain social groups. Marxism can be dangerous, because it promotes the idea of revolution, using deadly force if necessary, to accomplish change in society. It can be helpful, also, as for example when it criticizes capitalism and argues for a fairer distribution of wealth to all citizens. One important dimension of Marxism is that it is a materialist philosophy. This means there is no room for gods, ancestors, holy persons, or supernatural events. Everything is explained in terms of human activities, markets, exchange of goods and services etc. For many people this is not an adequate explanation of the way the world is. Human creativity and spirituality are not regarded as anything special, and this is a weakness of Marxism in many social groups which believe in a religion or a moral order that depends on something beyond the visible world. Images of Marxism Source: http://www.voicesofthe7billion.co.uk/v111/2012/07/11/marxism-is-seeing-a-rise-in-popularity-across-europe/ [This picture above shows workers’ housing in an Eastern European style. The state provides this so that the workers have decent places to live, but there is a great uniformity in the design. It makes cities look different because working class architecture is planned centrally and allocated to workers in nationalised companies.] Source: http://www.citizens4freedom.com/Articles/tabid/1387/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/6404/What-is-Cultural-Marxism.aspx [This is an image (above) of the hammer and the sickle which are the symbols of Marxism across the world. They refer to the supremacy of the ordinary worker, rather than any other kind of power such as royalty or wealth]. How Marxism relates to clients Marxism is important because it reminds us of the value of every human being, including those who are at the bottom of social hierarchies. In India we have a caste system, and some people are born into the lower caste, called the untouchables, which traditionally meant a life of hardship on the margins of society, especially in the rural areas where people had little education. Marxism challenges these stereotypes and argues that in fact the lowest workers deserve the greatest honour, because they are the ones that generate the bottom stage of the wealth that everyone enjoys. They make life easier for rich people by taking the dirty jobs and the unpleasant places to live and they do the hardest physical work, growing crops and gathering raw materials for industry. There are some clients who are being treated badly at work, or in the home, or in education, and Marxism gives us a rationale for challenging this and arguing for fair treatment and equality. Fortunately there is a lot of legislation these days which aims to guarantee this fair treatment, and clients can be empowered to claim their rights. Sometimes clients need help to do this, because they have been disadvantaged in the past and this makes them depressed and unwilling to stand up to powerful people. Marxism is quite critical of human nature, believing that people have a tendency to be greedy and selfish. It certainly does seem to describe accurately what goes on in many industrialised countries. How Marxism relates to me as an individual I think Marxism is an attractive philosophy in theory. It would be nice if everyone in the world could have a fair share of the resources that are available. Unfortunately, however, I think that Marxism is unrealistic. It does not work in practice, and I think we have seen this in the fall of Communist Russia and the gradual opening of China to capitalist ideology. Rich and powerful people always have an advantage over poor people, and they usually use this advantage to make the gap even bigger, rather than to help poor people. I am suspicious of privately funded interventions in social work areas, for example, because big companies and famous individuals usually have other motives for getting involved in charity or welfare work. I would prefer to work for state organisations, if possible, because of this, and in this matter I think I agree more with the Marxist theory than capitalist theories. In my experience it is not enough to ensure that everyone is given the same wages, for example. I have seen two workers on exactly the same salary, where one of them is always in debt, and has problems with his family being in trouble all the time, and the other one lives quietly and has a modest but decent life. People are different and they will behave differently. I also think that hierarchies will always exist in human society, and I would not encourage anyone to adopt revolutionary ideas, or any kind of violence in order to promote political ideas. I am therefore not a Marxist. I like the idea of a fairer society, and I have no problem with sharing profits among all the people, but I do not like Marxist methods which include violent struggle and the persecution of intellectuals, or people who hold a different political view. References History Learning Site, web page (2012). Sociological Theories. Retrieved from: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/sociological_theories.htm The Theory of Feminism Feminism is another political theory that takes a particular perspective on the way that society is organized. It is a phenomenon that arose in the middle of the twentieth century in the aftermath of the two World Wars. During the wars, men had been away from home fighting and the women had been left to take up all the heavy jobs such as making ammunition, agriculture, driving and other professions that had previously occupied by men. There had also been successful struggles in many countries for women to obtain the vote. When the men came back from the Second World War, women were not happy to return to their traditional roles as wives and mothers and this gave rise to feminism. A French philosopher and writer, Simone de Beauvoir, was a major influence with her book The Second Sex (1949). Drawing on Marxist ideas about the oppression of the working class by powerful aristocracy, Simone de Beauvoir pointed out that in European societies, women were oppressed by the patriarchal dominance of men. In America Betty Friedan (1963) wrote about the way that many women go along with this dominance because it suits them to take the advantages of being with a powerful male, but ultimately it is harmful for everyone if one half of humanity is oppressed by the other half. In sociology, feminism has had a very crucial influence because it has raised awareness of the difference and diversity that exists in every human society. It is not acceptable to make decisions according to what men think, or what men assume to be the best for everyone: “A feminist sociology is one that is not just or necessarily about women but one that challenges and confronts the male supremacy that institutionalizes women’s inequality” (Abbot et al., 1990, p. 19). This is a big issue for social work and related areas because there are pockets of society in every country where male dominance is regarded as the norm. There can be examples of women at the top of government, as for example in the case of India, while at the same time social customs can exist which condemn a woman to marry against her will, and obey the rules laid down by a father, husband or brother. It takes time to change such traditions, and I can see some of them surviving even into the present time and urban areas, despite a general shift towards more equal treatment of women. Feminists take up a confrontational position against men, which makes it hard sometimes for their message to be accepted, especially by men. One should consider, however, that feminist writers are following centuries of oppression, and to some extent their anger and impatience is justified. Within feminism there are sub-groups, including those who stand up for the rights of black women, or for lesbian and transgender women. It is important to be aware of the differences between women in different cultures, as well as their similarities in terms of gender. Feminism tends to be seen as a white, middle class phenomenon, but in fact it should be seen as a very diverse theory which can have different areas of focus depending on the context. Modern society has benefited greatly from the work that feminists have done to raise awareness about the oppression of women and provide a platform for education, discussion and political action. Without their efforts, women would not have access to education and job opportunities on the same basis as men. Muslim women are not allowed to move about freely or dress as they wish, and many of them actually prefer to stay within the traditional limits of their faith. It is important therefore, to use feminist ideas wisely and sensitively, because women themselves have a range of different opinions about the matter. Images of Feminism Source: http://leftycartoons.com/category/feminist/ [This is a funny cartoon which makes a serious point: many opportunities such as good jobs and promotion are reserved for men, and feminists aim to change this. This images hows how the words sometimes do not match the policies that countries and people pretend to have.] Source: http://people.howstuffworks.com/feminism4.htm [This photograph above shows how black women took strength from the feminist movement to demonstrate and fight for equality, not just of race, but also as women. The symbol of the raised fist shows that they see themselves as an oppressed group, fighting for freedom. The picture illustrates that there are different branches of feminism, and that conflict and protest is a major part of this theory.] How Feminism relates to clients Clients come in all shapes and sizes, and they have some issues which are different according to their gender. The tendency of some fathers to abandon their families leaves women in a difficult position where they have to look after the children, and cannot fulfil their own dreams of work or education because of this. Feminist theory shows that interventions in family care have to be directed at women themselves. Better educated women make more competent mothers, and are better able to learn messages about health and childcare. There are some schemes for micro-lending and funding which have been directed at women, for example, because sexist laws often prevent women from having bank accounts or owning property. There can be a problem in Australia with teenage women who are the children of immigrants. The younger generation has often adopted feminist ideas from Australian culture, but often the parents want to enforce traditional practices like arranged marriages from the country they came from. There is a long way to go before women in developing countries have the same rights as women in Western countries, but the evidence is clear that equality for women is good for society as a whole. How Feminism relates to me as an individual Obviously as a man I cannot know what it is like to be a woman and have to suffer oppression from men. I do understand, however, that not all men are sexist, and I think I am able to support women in their lives with sympathy and a genuine respect, even though I am a man. My own personal view is that men and woman should be able to choose different roles in the family, in work or anywhere else, if they want to. I think people should also choose the dress codes and marriage practices that they want to. Many women prefer cultural patterns that feminists do not agree with. In my work I do not automatically assume that any female client is a feminist or an anti-feminist. I try to listen carefully to what the client wants, and if I am not sure I ask for clarification. Sometimes, as a man, I can talk to a husband or father who is being unreasonable, and I can help to explain things from the woman’s point of view, when the man will not listen to women. This too, needs to be done with sensitivity, because gender relations can be an emotional thing for people to deal with. References Abbot, P., Wallace C., and Tyler, M. (1990) Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives. New York: Routledge. De Beauvoir, Simone. (1949) The Second Sex. Paris: Gallimard. Friedan, B. (1963) The Feminine Mystique. New York: Norton. The Theory of Postmodernism Postmodernism is a word that can be used to refer to many different things in human experience. It is a movement which reacts to the kind of ideas that we saw above in functionalism. There is no longer an assumption that everything must fit neatly together in a system. In the arts postmodernism shows a departure from traditional forms and styles in to quirky non-representational images and a mixing of elements from different periods. In sociology the main feature of postmodernism is that it does not propose one, single explanation or theory but it deliberately mixes many opposing features. The three other theories discussed in this portfolio, namely Functionalism, Marxism and Feminism, all depend on a line of argument that is based on what has gone before, which is bad, and what should come next, which is hopefully better. They are based on an assumption that human history is linear and leads forward in time. Postmodernism, on the other hand, refuses to be confined to this narrative. It has been said that “ in sociology, postmodernism is described as the result of economic, cultural, and demographic changes. These changes include the rise of the service economy, the importance of the mass media, and the rise of an increasingly interdependent world economy” (About sociology website, 2012). Recognition of the huge variation in human behaviours across the world leads us to be more flexible in our thinking, and to consider both the bad and good features of Modernism, Marxism, Capitalism and all the other “isms” that are available at the present time and throughout history. In the context of Australia and New Zealand postmodernism brings some useful ideas such as the ability to see local problems against the background of globalization. One textbook sees community development as being multi-dimensional: “Community development involves a vision of how things might be changed so that sustainability and social justice can be achieved at global and national levels” (Munford and Wheturangi Walsh-Tapiata, 2005, p. 98). This can be good for minority communities, who have previously been treated as a marginal part of the main society. By seeing themselves as part of a global network, they can access ideas and support from across the globe, and this helps them to negotiate better plans for their own community development. Images of postmodernism Source: http://stanfordflipside.com/2011/10/postmodern-family-kicks-off-fresh-new-fall-lineup/ [This image above shows how families have changed in many societies because of the opening up of different possible lifestyles. There are still traditional husband and wife plus children units, but there are also more inter-racial marriages, there are single parents, and there are gay couples and all kinds of different family structure. Social workers have to accept all these different models and help to make them effective, without maintaining a prejudice against any unusual forms]. Source: http://www.sauer-thompson.com/junkforcode/archives/2005/09/ [This image above shows how the world has become much more inter-connected. People in India can be in touch with family on other continents through skype, and all countries share trade and ideas with each other. The old certainties of living in smaller units has disappeared, and instead there is a sometimes confusing mix of ideologies floating around. People have to find their way through this new global village and it is not always easy]. How postmodernism relates to clients I have seen how postmodernism in our society makes things less permanent for clients. Jobs are often temporary, and people move around much more. On the positive side, there are more part time jobs, and people can sometimes work from home. On the negative side, clients cannot rely on working for one company, or even in one industry, for life like they used to do in the middle of the twentieth century. I think flexibility is the biggest attribute that clients need to develop, and anything that helps them to do that is a good thing. There is also a lot more mixing up of different lifestyles in our cities these days. South Asian people settling in Australia mix with native Australians, so that there is a clash of languages, religions, cultures and points of view. A lot of trends from America and Europe pass to Australia also, and this can be bewildering for older people especially, who tend to cling to the past. I think some clients need culture and language specific care, and this is very difficult to provide because it is expensive and troublesome to organise. How postmodernism relates to me as an individual This is the theory that fits my own views best of all. I think my history of travel from India to other places shows that I am eager to learn new things about the world. I am excited by the mix of different ideas that it is possible to experience in the postmodern world, and the arrival of networking technology that crosses space and time in an instant presents many possibilities for improving care of clients. I think it will be interesting to see in twenty years or so how many services are delivered virtually, rather than in face to face meetings, and I would like to get involved in this during my career. At the moment poverty and lack of training excludes the most vulnerable people from these benefits, but I hope that this problem will become easier to solve when technology is both cheaper and more widely accepted in all ages and population groups. I like the way that support groups and service user groups now have more say in what happens to local services. This is changing relationships with clients, and letting us work more closely with them. I welcome this because it takes some of the pressure from professionals and opens up many new ways to help people. References About Sociology Website. 2012. Retrieved from: http://www.aboutsociology.com/sociology/Postmodernists Munford, R. and Wheturangi Walsh-Tapiata. (2005) Community Development: Principles into Practice. In M. Nash, R. Munford and K. O’Donoghue (Eds). Social Work Theories in Action. London and New York. Read More