Sociology Theories - Essay Example

? Sociology Theories Theory Functionalism Introduction The functionalism theory refers to a sociological perspective, which describes a society as comprising of different parts. These parts making up society tend to be interrelated, with each of the parts serving certain crucial purposes. Functionalism argues that behavior and structures in society can be explained with regards to the parts that make up the society, as well as the roles played by the parts. The earliest development of functionalism theory can be credited to the works of Auguste Comte during the 19th century. Later on, another functionalist, Emile Durkheim advanced the arguments in functionalism through his likening of society with the body of human beings (Appelrouth & Edles, 2008). Discussion According to Ferrante & Ferrante-Wallace (2008), functionalism argues that society comprise of various parts, which play a central role in enhancing its survival. The argument of functionalism is that, just like the components of the human body depend on each other, so are the components that make up society. To functionalists, therefore, society is like a system that has various components. Each component must contribute to the wellbeing and the survival of the entire system. Functionalists identify the role played by each of the parts that make up society. Some of the components/parts of society identified by functionalists include the government, religious institutions, the economy, health institutions, the judiciary, family, and school, among others. The government provides the structures necessary for availing essential services needed by the public. For example, amenities such as schools and education are a provision of government. Religious institutions (such as church) serve to maintain morals in society and ensure that people uphold acceptable norms of behavior. Economic institutions serve the financial needs of the population while healthcare institutions provide health services to the populace. The judicial systems such as the judiciary and other law enforcement agencies ensure that people maintain law and order, and provide security. Schools teach children and impart good morals in them; this helps in making children citizens who will obey the law (Appelrouth & Edles, 2008). Functionalism sees society as basic unit used in analysis, and whose parts cannot be understood in isolation. Rather, the various parts that make up society can be easily understood in relation to how they relate to the entire system, as well as based on how they relate to each other. Thus, the contribution that the parts make to the whole is of central emphasis in functionalism. Functionalists also contend order can be regarded as the condition that dominates society. Consensus and stability reinforces this order, which means that there should not be conflict resulting from coercion. Failure to meet the functional prerequisites leads to a state of instability/disequilibrium in the entire system. In order for the system to go back to equilibrium, there has to be a state of balance in the dysfunctional parts (Delaney & Madigan, 2009). Advantages One advantage of functionalism is that it provides an understanding of the roles played by the parts of society. The arguments raised by the theory can be termed as factual since every part contributes immensely to the survival of the whole. The other advantage of functionalism is its discussion of the effects of the dysfunction of some parts of society. Based on this, societies can strive to maintain peace, order, and stability in order to avoid imbalance in the system (Appelrouth & Edles, 2008). Disadvantages or Critique Functionalism has faced criticism based on its explanation that people within a certain society tend to share common values. This may not be so since some members of society may have formed a subculture that rebels against the values of society. The theory can also be termed disadvantageous because of its explanation that social harmony in society results from social institutions. This may not be the case since social structures may affect different groups of people in different ways (Ferrante & Ferrante-Wallace, 2008). Conclusion The theory of functionalism refers to a school of thought in sociology that explains society as comprising of various parts. The main argument of functionalism includes that each part makes a notable contribution in ensuring that the whole survives. The theory also states that dysfunction in one part of the system may affect the entire system. Functionalism maintains that, for society to be at equilibrium, all parts must function with order. Dysfunction in some parts leads to disequilibrium. Two images relevant to the theory and how they relate to it Some of theorists who advanced theory of functionalism include Emile Durkheim and Herbert Spencer. The contributions of Durkheim to the theory of functionalism include his analysis of social institutions in terms of the contributions they make. His belief was that education can be regarded as essential since it binds people and creates social solidarity. According to him, people develop a sense of belonging to a society due to education. Durkheim also argued that crime and deviance played an essential role, as it provided employment for the police, defense attorneys, and other law enforcement agencies (Cotterrell, 2000). On his side, Herbert Spencer argued that changes in social structures occur together with changes in the functions of the structures. Spencer relates to the theory of functionalism based on his analysis of social institutions with regard to the general matrix (society). He also argued that some customs and behavior patterns, which seemed weird in some cultures, played vital roles in cultures where they were practiced. Spencer argued that social institutions do not emanate from deliberate motivations and intentions of actors. Rather, they emanate from structural and functional exigencies (Rumney, 2007). How the theory relates to clients The theory of functionalism relates to clients facing a situation that causes instability in the client. For example, a client suffering from a mental condition can be assisted to deal with his or her situation with the use of functionalism theory. The therapist can help such a client identify the various parts of his or her life, which have led to some dysfunction in the client’s life. Based on the understanding of dysfunctional areas, the therapist can then help the client to identify appropriate strategies that will bring his life back to normal (Ferrante & Ferrante-Wallace, 2008). How the theory relates to me Functionalism relates to me as an individual in that it helps me understand the roles played by the various parts of society. The theory also helps me understand that I am part of a system in which I have a role to play. The theory also relates to me as it helps me gain an understanding into the causes of instability in society. The theory also helps me learn the need to unite with other people for a better society. References Appelrouth, S. & Edles, D. L. (2008). Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings. London: Pine Forge Press. Cotterrell, R. (2000). Emile Durkheim: Law in a Moral Domain. California: Stanford University Press. Delaney, T. & Madigan, T. (2009). The Sociology of Sports: An Introduction. North Carolina: McFarland. Ferrante, J. & Ferrante-Wallace, J. (2008). Sociology: A Global Perspective. London: Cengage Learning. Rumney, J. (2007). Herbert Spencer’s Sociology. London: Transaction Books. Marxism Introduction Marxism refers to a social and economic system based on Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels theories, which focus on economics and politics. The Marxist perspective holds that a central element that defines social change in the Western societies is class struggle. The explanations put forth by the theory of Marxism are typical of an antithesis of capitalism. Marxism entails a socialism system, which advocates for the public ownership of exchange, the means of production, and distribution. Marxism explains the typical nature of a capitalist society and attempts to show the unfair nature of capitalism. In addition, Marxism focuses on the oppressive and exploitative nature of a capitalist society and how capitalism will bear the seeds of its own destruction (Berman, 2001). Discussion Marxism holds that a capitalistic society consists of the working class and those who own production means. Marx referred to those who own production means as the bourgeoisie while the working class comprises of the proletariat, who do not own any property. The proletariats only own their capacity to work for the bourgeoisie; thus, they sell their labor to the owners of means of production. Marxism contends that class can only be defied based on how the means of production relate to its members. Marxism is of the opinion that history is defined by chronological class struggles, numerous uprisings, and wars. Marxists argue that a capitalist system entails paying workers minimum salaries, which the workers use to support their own families (Curtis, 1997). Marxism argues that workers undergo alienation since they cannot control the product they produce or the labor they offer to their employers. Marxists talk of surplus value, which includes the difference between the price at which employers sell products and the income earned by the workers. According to Marxism, the ruling class uses the state as a means of exercising control over the other classes. Marxism categorizes successive historical stages. These include primitive communism, which entails hunting and gathering, barbarism that is characterized by rule of chiefs. The other stages include slave society, feudalism, capitalist society, socialism, and communism (Berman, 2001). Marxism argues that economic recessions cause discontent among the working class; the recessions are as a result of the inability of the working class to buy the goods they have produced with their own labor. In addition, the ruling class and capitalists lack the capacity to consume the surplus value. Marxism predicts that eventually a socialist of proletariat revolution will occur as a result of the dictatorship of the state. As competition ensues between capitalists, there is the use of machinery and technology in production. As a result, the working class will be laid off; without jobs, they will have a low purchasing power, and will be unable to purchase the goods produced by the capitalism. The capitalist system will eventually since it depends on the working class for survival (Cole, 2008). Advantages One advantage of Marxism is that it considers society as an entity; thus, it acknowledges and recognizes all the social factors involved in all aspects of society. The theory also provides a comprehensive explanation of the power struggles between various classes, as well as the interests of the different groups found in society. The other advantage of Marxism is that it provides an in depth explanation social change, as well as conflict that prevails in society. The theory also focuses on the role played by class struggles between the bourgeoisie and proletariat. This class struggle plays an essential role in bringing harmony in society (Cole, 2008). Disadvantages The theory has faced a lot of criticism based on a number of reasons. First, the theory tends to be subjective in its explanation of the capitalist phenomena. For instance, it does not explore those people in the working class who earn a lot of money. The theory has also faced criticism based on its explanation of class struggle as the main factor that shapes society. It overlooks the fact that there may be other factors, which can shape society apart from the class struggle (Curtis, 1997). Conclusion Marxism emanated from the works of Karl Marx and his explanation of class struggles in society. According to Marxism, the two most dominant social classes in society include the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The capitalists exercise control over the working class who exchange their labor for meager earnings. Marxism predicts the destruction of the capitalist system, which will emanate from discontent by the proletariat. Two images who relate to the theory and how they relate to it The most prominent Marxist theorists include Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels who made notable contributions to the theory of Marxism. Marx emphasized that the bourgeoisie unfairly exploits the proletariat. To Marx, the lack of protest from the people (working class) only precipitated the exploitative nature of the system. Marx argued that the capitalist system continues to produce more wealth, which belongs to the capitalist and the ruling elite who control society. Marx also criticized the uneven distribution of wealth in society, which led to the enslaving of the poor by the rich. Marx advocated for a revolution of the proletariats as this can be the best way to end the exploitative nature of capitalism (Marx, Engels & Griffith, 2009). Engels relates to the theory of Marxism in that he tried to show people that the capitalist system did not benefit everyone. Rather, the system only benefited a few who tend to be rich and are at the top of the pyramid. Engels argued that the riches accumulated by the ruling class result from exploitation of the poor, as well as the huge amount of capital owned by the rich. Engels advocated for the elimination of injustices present in a capitalist society; this way, there will be total restructuring of the system (Marx, Engels & Griffith, 2009). How the theory relates to clients In the contemporary society, Marxism can make an immense contribution while dealing with some problems faced by clients. The clients of Marxist approach may include employees who undergo exploitation from their employer (s). While using this theory, a therapist can advocate for the formation of workers’ unions, which will play an essential role in addressing the grievances of employees. A therapist can also use this theory to help clients (workers) understand the need for unity. This is because unity can help them come together and have a stronger ground for addressing their problems (Turner, 2006). How the theory relates to me In my opinion, the theory of Marxism relates to me in several ways. First, the theory helps me understand the immense differences that exist in society. The theory also helps me understand the need to abolish systems and structures that cause inequality in society. The theory also relates to me in that I gain insights that society comprises of class struggles between the ruling class and other classes. Through the theory, I have understood the causes of numerous revolutions that take place. References Berman, M. (2001). Adventures in Marxism. London: Verso. Cutis, M. (1997). Marxism; the Inner Dialogues. London: Transaction Books. Cole, M. (2008). Marxism, Postmodernism and Education. London: Routledge. Marx, K., Engels, F., Griffith, H. (2009). Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels. London: Collector’s Library. Turner, J. H. (2006). Handbook of Sociological Theory. New York: Springer. Feminism Introduction According to Beasley (1999), Feminism refers to a political and intellectual movement whose aim is to empower women by seeking justice for them and ending any form of sexual discrimination directed towards women. The theory of feminism provides insights on how society should be structured in order to bring an end to oppressive customs and beliefs, which discriminate against women. Feminism focuses on a variety of perspectives regarding discrimination of women as seen in social, economic, political, and cultural aspects. Feminists strive to seek reproductive health rights for women, as well as a quest for equality and equity between the male and female gender in employment, property rights, and representation in public leadership positions. Discussion The theory of feminism traces it origin to efforts aimed at ensuring that women rights and interests in society are addressed. There exist three waves that explain the historical development of feminism. The first wave of feminism took place during the nineteenth century and also during the early twentieth century. The 1960s and marked the onset of the second wave that attempted to advocate for the rights of women. The third wave of feminism dates back from the 1990s to date. All these feminist movements have contributed to the development of feminism theory. The manifestation of the feminist theory occurs in fields such as literary criticism, feminist history, as well as feminist geography (Beasley, 1999). Feminists claim that society and customs therein treat woman unfairly as compared to how it treats men. Feminism holds that women are not treated in accordance with morality and justice standards. Based on this, feminism works towards changing the status quo and ensuring that women attain their rights, do not face discrimination, and can have a say in the issues that affect them in society. The argument raised by feminism is that gender is socially and not biologically constructed. Thus, the attributes accorded to either gender can be challenged. Feminists argue that women have created rules in society, which ensure that their status is elevated, and they have an advantage over women (Lee, 2009). Donovan (2000) contends that liberal feminists argue that both women and women should be entitled to equal respect and equal rights. Liberalists are of the opinion that, currently, women tend to be disadvantaged when it comes to respect and rights, especially when compared with men. Feminism holds that women have an experience of the social world differently from men because of the values that society associates with being a woman. In addition, the varying roles assigned to both men and women in the society act as a perfect explanation of gender differences. This is inclusive of the division of labor in the household. Feminism also raises the argument that women can reason and act as men, but the patriarchal nature of society denies them an opportunity to do so. Feminists see the oppression of women in society as resulting from structural oppression, which tends to be perpetrated by capitalism. Feminism is in agreement with the arguments of Marx and Engels that the working class faces exploitation from the capitalists. According to Feminists, capitalists tend to extend oppression to gender, which in this case includes women (Lee, 2009). Advantages of the theory One of the advantages of feminism is that the theory can be employed in many issues, which affect women in society. This is because the explanations of women discrimination as portrayed by the theory tend to be inclusive of all cultures. The other advantage of the theory is that it provides a comprehensive and realistic explanation of the situation of women in society (Madsen, 2000). Disadvantages/Criticism One of the critiques of feminism is that the theory exaggerates the patriarchal society; critics argue that the gender inequality that used to exist before has since come to an end. Critiques argue that the theory has overemphasized on the rights of women to the extent that they have now acquired a status higher than men. As a result, society will now be faced with a task of empowering men. Affirmative action has also faced criticism as it seems that women receive more favors than men in the workplace (Madsen, 2000). Conclusion The theory of feminism has brought significant changes in the Western world, especially in aspects such as law and culture. Abolitionists and activists have organized movements that have fought for the rights of women. As a result, women have attained rights such as property ownership rights, rights to vote, employment rights, and representation in public offices. As a result of feminist movements, the position of women in society has now changed. Two images that relate to the theory and how they relate to it One of the images that relate to the theory of feminism is Charlotte Perkins Gilman who did several works, which advocated for the rights of women. Some of her works include ‘Woman and Economics’ that analyzed the place of women in society. She also a novel entitled ‘Herland’, which can be regarded as a novel on feminist utopia. Perkins argued that women cannot be regarded as weak-minded, timid, small-minded, or vacillating. She argued that society weakens and narrows women. She also held that the youth should be the ones to bring social progress in society (Elliot, 2010). The other theorist who advanced feminism was Olympe de Gouges, a French playwright whose works coincided with the French Revolution. Her greatest works that advocated for the rights of women included “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Citizen” in 1791. She also argued that women should be allowed to engage in reasoning and making of moral decisions. Gouges held that women had to be respected by men since they could be regarded as equal partners of men (Elliot, 2010). How the theory relates to clients The theory if feminism can be said to relate to clients in a number of ways. First, the theory relates to women who undergo discrimination in a male dominated society. While using the theory, a therapist can assist the client deal with her problems through awareness creation and sensitization. The client can be helped acquire justice through the appropriate means such as legal aid. Therapists can also sensitize clients about their rights; this way, women will deal with gender discrimination in society (Donovan, 2000). How the theory relates to me The arguments and propositions put forth by feminism relates to me, as I live in society in which the women’s quest for justice and equal rights have become a common phenomenon. Through the theory, I have understood that the rights of both men and women should be respected and that no gender should be discriminated. I have also gained insights on the need to have equal representation of women in the public arena. The theory also gives me a deeper understanding of why women have always faced discrimination from men and society at large. References Beasley, C. (1999). What is Feminism?: An Introduction to Feminist Theory. London: Routledge. Donovan, J. (2000). Feminist Theory: The Intellectual Traditions, Third Edition. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. Elliot, P. (2010). Debates in Transgender, Queer, and Feminist Theory: Contested Sites. Surrey: Ashgate Publishing. Lee, W. L. (2009). Contemporary Feminist Theory and Activism: Six Global Issues. New York: Broadview Press. Madsen, D. L. (2000). Feminist Theory and Literary Practice. London: Pluto Press. Postmodernism Introduction Postmodernism refers to an intellectual movement that came to being during the Enlightenment period with the aim of challenging modernist themes, which became prevalent during this period. Some of the beliefs that postmodernism challenges include; the inevitable nature of human progress as well as scientific positivism. The theory also challenges the truth, which may be addressed by any social and physical conditions. Postmodernism also entails the elevation of language and text as the fundamental existence phenomena. Postmodernism theorists also believe that literary analysis can be applied to all that exists in the world (Reed, 2010). Discussion The arguments raised by postmodernism focus on the questioning of representation and reality, arguments against evaluation and method, and a critique of metanarratives. The theory of postmodernism also focuses on power relations, as well as hegemony; these center on a critical evaluation of Western knowledge and the institutions established by the West. Postmodernism critiques science based on epistemological and ideological argument; these two arguments focus on subjectivity. Postmodernism holds that objective truth cannot be discovered since the human object (in anthropology) is subjective. Postmodernists also argue that science contributes to the subversion of females, oppressed groups, and people from the third-world countries (Turner, 2006). Postmodernism also holds that reality cannot be achieved through investigation carried out by humans. Postmodernists also believe that knowledge can be regarded as a social construction and that claims of truth tend to be politically structured, and they represent power relations in the political arena. Postmodernism is of the opinion that it is readers and not authors who should have the mandate to determine the meaning that words have. To postmodernists, therefore, reality is as it is seen by social groups and individuals and thus it can be altered (Reed, 2010). Postmodernism has non-traditional views of life in society, especially in aspects such as a church, family, and the state. According to Postmodernism, the political functioning of the modern society is what determines the social and economic relations of people. As such, the argument of postmodernism is that social order comprises of the state, law, and the economic aspect. Because culture determines who people are, living within the societal order created by the state can be said to be “the essence of life.” Postmodernism also holds that no unified self exists in society; therefore, life comprises of the totality of a community’s cultural aspects (McKinley, 2000). Postmodernism critiques the conventional belief that education serves to train the cognitive capacity of the child in order to make the child an adult, who will function independent of others in society. According to postmodernism, the purpose of education is to give the child some social identity. Postmodernists argue that education molds children through the use of language, which creates a person sensitive to sexual, racial, and class identity. Postmodernism also challenges institutions established by the West such as the constitution and other governance institutions. Postmodernists believe that such institutions exist to oppress people and deny them social justice (McKinley, 2000). Advantages One of the advantages of postmodernism theory is that it acts as a movement, which supports liberation. It champions for the rights of the oppressed whom it argues do not belong to the modern era but to the era of identities, communities, as well as interest groups. Postmodernism also provides an avenue to bring an end to Western ideologies, which have dominated society for a long time. This can be seen as liberation, as it contributes to the freedom of those trapped in oppressive regimes. Another advantage of the theory is that it leads to the reinvention of cultures; this happens through the suggestion that globalization activates traditional life worlds (Turner, 2006). Disadvantages or Critique of Postmodernism One of the critiques of postmodernism theory is that it ignores the notion of truth, thus distorting human understanding of reality. As a result, it becomes extremely contradicting to understand real happenings. Critiques have also discredited the theory because of its overemphasis on language and the text. This poses a challenge to changing the status quo; as a result, the theory may not bring any constructive change in society (Kendall, 2011). Conclusion Postmodernism refers to a school of thought that challenges the period of enlightenment and changes in the modern society. The theory holds that truth cannot be objective; thus, it rejects the notion of truth. The theory also criticizes the Western world, arguing that western values perpetrate injustices. Two images that relate to the theory and how they relate to it One of the images that relate to the theory of postmodernism is Walter Anderson who has made immense contributions to the understanding of the theory. One of the significant contributions that Anderson made was in his explanations of education. He argued that education should dwell on the achievements of the poor, non-whites, as well as women. He also stated that focus of education should be identifying the historical crimes committed by the rich, whites, as well as male gender. He also believed that science cannot be regarded as the best method to teach people truth (Taylor & Winquist, 1998). The other image who relates to the theory of postmodernism is Michel Foucault. In his view, the church cannot be regarded as part of institutions that make up society. Foucault also contends that social order results from a combination of the state, law, as well as economics. He also argued that one can only make sense of human life as a result of the social order created by this combination (McKinley, 2000). How the theory relates to the client The theory of postmodernism relates to the client in a number of ways, given that the theory can be of use in addressing problems faced by clients. Through postmodernism, a therapist can help the client gain an understanding of the truth and knowledge regarding therapy and psychological health. The theory also relates to the client in that it values personal stories as compared to objective knowledge. Therefore, the client will own the outcome of the therapy. Postmodernism also emphasizes that therapy may have varying effects on various clients (Kendall, 2011). How the theory relates to me as an individual The theory of postmodernism relates to me in that it has helped me understand the position of women and the oppressed in society, as belonging to groups based on ethnicity, race, and class relations. The theory has also helped me gain insights into the contributions made by non-western entities. The theory also relates to me because I can now have an objective look into rationality, modern practices, and modern institutions. The theory also offers insights that can be useful in challenging the political structures prevalent in today’s society. References Kendall, D. (2011). Sociology in Our Times: The Essentials. London: Cengage Learning. McKinley, B. (2000). Postmodernism certainly is not science, but could it be religion? CSAS Bulletin 36(1), 16-18. Reed, I. A. (2010). Epistemology Contextualized: Social-Scientific Knowledge in a Postpositivist Era. Sociological Theory 28(1), 20-39. Taylor, V. E. & Winquist, C. E. (1998). Postmodernism: Critical Concepts; London: Routledge. Turner, H. J. (2006). Handbook of Sociological Theory. New York: Springer. Read More