Gender Gap Among Latino Partisans - Essay Example

The Gender Gap: Latino and Latina Partisans Gender has been central to the political debate as more women have entered the political arena and their power as a voting bloc has been a critical factor in both local and national elections. Race and ethnicity have likewise been an issue as political campaigns attempt to garner a larger share of these critical social groups. Much has been written about the influence of feminism, the black vote, and women's issues, but Latinos have more often been portrayed as a bloc without regards to gender and its effect on partisan politics. Is there a gender gap among Hispanic voters A review of the literature reveals that Latinos make up one of the largest social groups and have a significant impact on partisan politics. The literature on the gender gap among Hispanic voters in generally inconclusive, or reports no gender gap in electoral politics. The recent presidential election shows the impact that Latinos have on electoral politics, as they have become the largest ethnic voting minority and voted overwhelmingly for the eventual winner. The issue of the Latino voter is no longer restricted to the Southwest and border states that have traditionally had a large Hispanic population. This research will evaluate the current data and determine whether there is an existing gender gap among Latino partisans. It will further examine the other factors that impact the gender gap, while placing particular focus on the influence of age. Finally, the research will examine the data to make a cause and effect connection to determine the reasons that underlie the differences in the voting patterns of Latinos and Latinas. The Rising Tide of the Hispanic Voter The impact of the Latino vote is a national issue, and understanding the gender gap has become more important to politicians and legislators as they attempt to frame the issues and policies that Latinos see as favorable. While the Hispanic population is the fastest growing ethnic voting group, the political participation rate of Hispanics lags behind Blacks and Whites, both in registration rates and voter turnout.1 Hispanics made up 14 percent of the US population but only accounted for 6 percent of the voters in 2004.2 This is attributed to the large number of Hispanics that are too young to vote or do not qualify based on citizenship status. While the results of various polling data vary, it was reported that the Hispanics' share of the voters had risen to 9 percent in the 2008 presidential election.3 Yet, there are a significant number of variables within this bloc that creates differences in their voting habits. Age, country of origin, education, language preference, religion, economic status, acculturation, and region of residence all contribute to the voting behaviors and political preferences of the Latino voter.4 Gender may play an even more pivotal role when a Latino selects a candidate or supports an issue. Women account for only 49 percent of the Hispanic population, but make up 53 percent of the Hispanics that cast a vote in 2004.5 Politicians and lawmakers would both be well served with an understanding of the ways in which gender impacts the Latino vote. Campaigns, platforms, policies, and laws could be constructed in an effort to gain the support of this important voting group. Understanding the role that gender plays in Latino partisanship would not only aid the politician seeking to gain a larger voting share, but would also benefit the Latino voter by making their preferences for policies and laws more widely known and more highly valued. Making assumptions about the political preferences of any voting group can be mired in paradox and contradictions. The traditional view that Blacks tend to vote Democratic has been challenged in recent years by the conservative African-American movement that has demonstrated the fact that political parties can no longer take voting blocs for granted. This is especially true for the Hispanic female voter. Political leanings that may be influenced by socio-economic factors can be tempered by the conservative impact of religious faith, with 92 percent of the Hispanic population reporting having a major religious affiliation.6 This is reflected in the fact that while only 27 percent of the Hispanic population report being Republican, 75 percent say they are either moderate or conservative.7 This would indicate that the 49 percent that report being a member of the Democratic Party are conservative Democrats, and only 26 percent label themselves as liberal.8 However, Hispanics voted in large numbers for the liberal Obama with a 67 percent share as opposed to McCain's 31 percent.9 This is the context in which the voting habits of the Hispanic female are examined. They are more likely than their male counterparts to vote, and there is a conservative slant that influences their political preferences. The Hispanic Voter: Attitudes and Preferences The last three decades have seen Latino voters vote overwhelmingly in favor of the Democratic presidential candidate. Hispanics consider themselves Democrats over Republicans by a margin of 57 percent to 23 percent in a recent poll.10 In addition, age plays an important role in party identification, with younger voters significantly more likely to associate themselves with the Democratic Party than older voters. Female Hispanics were slightly more likely to prefer Obama than their male counterparts, and younger voters were significantly more likely to prefer Obama with 76 percent supporting the Democratic candidate.11 While Hispanics do show a preference for the Democratic Party, much of this support is lukewarm. Hispanics are more likely to believe that the Democrats have more concern for Latinos than the Republicans, but 41 percent indicated that there was no difference in the two parties.12 Hispanics are also more likely to say that the Democrats are doing a better job than the Republicans on the issues that affect Hispanics the most such as immigration. Still, while 41 percent of the Latino registered voters thought the Democrats were doing a better job on immigration, there was 59 percent that either believed the Republicans were doing better or that they did not have an opinion.13 Overall, party support for either the Democrats or Republicans is soft, with many voters prone to switch parties depending on the issue. The Democrats are perceived as doing a better job on most all of the issues that are important to the Latinos. The issues that are most important to Latinos, in descending order, are education, health care, economy and jobs, crime, immigration, and the War in Iraq.14 In the case of immigration, it was viewed as important by 79 percent of the respondents, and there was little variance due to party affiliation, native or foreign born, or gender.15 However, in regards to the other issues, women were more likely to see them as 'extremely important' as opposed to 'important'. Likewise, native-born Hispanics attached greater importance to these issues. Other demographic factors such as income, education, and age had no significant effect on the importance that was placed on these issues.16 Due to the importance of these issues and the increased significance that women place on them, if a gender gap exists, it would show up in the context of these issues. The Hispanic Woman Latino women, and a Hispanic gender gap, would tend to be seen on issues that affect women in general and without regards to race. As the nurturer and child bearer, they would be expected to be more liberal on compassion or social issues such as more access to education, drug treatment programs instead of prison time, and be more Democratic than Republican. Since male Hispanics lean to the liberal left, a gender gap may not be obvious on these issues. However, Latina women would be expected to be more conservative on moral issues and value issues such as abortion, sex education, pornography, and drug and alcohol use.17 Difference in preferences based on gender, and the gender gap, will be more apparent on issues such as crime, war, and attitudes towards violence than on issues that are generally thought of as women's issues such as abortion, welfare, and equal rights for women.18 In light of these observations, the research will examine the issues of crime, war and defense spending, attitudes towards gun control, public and personal safety, and moral issues. Crime is an issue that is important to 84 percent of the Hispanics and one that women are more likely to see as very important. On an issue that impacts crime, 64 percent of the women respondents felt there was too little money spent fighting crime, while only 54 percent of male Hispanics favored spending more. The number of males that felt there was too much money spent on crime was significantly higher than the number of females, at 10.8 percent to 6.8 percent.19 However, men favored the death penalty by a margin of 61 percent to 53 percent.20 Hispanic women favored a get tough on crime policy, with 58 percent saying that the courts did not deal harshly enough with criminals, which is only marginally higher than the 56 percent of the Hispanic males who said they thought that the courts were too lenient.21 It should be noted that these figures represent an attitude that is more lenient towards crime than that which is expressed by the white population. Whites favored harsher crimes and the death penalty in greater numbers than Hispanics. These attitudes would indicate that Hispanics take a more liberal view towards social issues, though there is only a marginal gender gap on crime. Only in regards to the use of the death penalty was there a noticeable difference. On the issue of gun control, Latino men are two and a half times more likely to oppose gun permits than women, but both male and females agree that there should be greater restrictions on handgun ownership with both favoring it by 93 percent.22 This is considerably higher than the White respondents. In addition, there is a significant gender gap among whites on the issue of handgun restrictions. Overall, there is no noticeable gender gap on the issues surrounding crime, except for the difference in favoring the death penalty. While we would expect women to be more in favor of gun control than Latino men, that was not the case. The surprising figure was the 90 percent of Latino men who favored greater restrictions on handgun ownership, which was far greater than their White counterparts. The main difference between males and females on the issue of crime is the increased importance that women place on the issue. The positive view that women have on gun control, and its importance, would reflect their Democratic leaning. The Hispanic views on war that are seen in the light of the overwhelming support that Latinos showed with their support for Barak Obama may be somewhat misleading. He was an early entry into the field and initiated his campaign based on his anti-war vote in the US Senate. However, in the early primaries the Hispanic voters preferred Hillary Clinton by a 59 percent to 15 percent margin.23 Clinton's initial vote in favor of the war may not have been as important to the Hispanic voter as her reputation for working for universal health care, a plan that was significantly more liberal than Obama's. As Clinton conceded the race, three fourths of the registered voters that supported Clinton switched their support to Obama.24 Examining the Hispanic views surrounding national defense and health care may shed some light on the differences that may exist due to gender. In general, people across the board feel like we spend too little money on protecting the nation's health. In addition, women of all races and ethnicities feel more strongly than men do in regards to this issue. This was echoed with Latino women that are more in favor than men of increasing spending on health care by a margin of 78 percent to 71 percent.25 There was no significant difference between male and female Latinos in regards to defense spending, with 70 percent of both genders stating that it was about right or too high. This was in line with the 1996 study by Lisa Montoya that reported, "on defense spending the gap between Mexican men and women was small, with 34 percent of women favoring decreased military spending versus 32 percent of men".26 The gender gap on the issue of violence may be expressed in more personal terms. The issue of domestic violence has been central to Latina women's political organizing efforts.27 Personal safety is an issue that concerns Latina women, as they express more general fear of public spaces than Latino men by a margin of 50 percent to 34 percent.28 In terms of safety, Latina women slightly favor increased efforts to protect our health or personal safety over Latino men, but the gender gap is not as pronounced as with Whites. Moral issues and values can be evaluated in how the genders and races perceive their fellow man, and how they measure equality. Overall, Latina women are less prejudice and have warmer feelings to both Blacks and Whites than Latino men.29 These feelings are further echoed in the fact that Latino men believe that ethnic minorities never fit into mainstream American culture by a margin of 44 percent to 32 percent for Latina women.30 Latina women further believe that ethnic minorities should assimilate and adapt to American culture in significantly larger numbers than male Latinos.31 Women of all races and ethnicities tended to view themselves as more empathetic than their male counterparts. Among Latinos, 64 percent described themselves as very empathetic compared to 43 percent of the Latino men. This was typical of the gender gap among other racial groups.32 A surprising statistic is the fact that Latino men are less likely than Latina women to have not donated to a charity within the last year. While 39 percent of the women have not donated in this period, only 24 percent of the men fit this description. This seems to run counter to the rates of empathy. In fact, all other races and ethnicities measured rated the women as more generous. White women and white men believe that success comes from hard work in relatively equal numbers. However, Hispanic men are considerably more likely to believe that luck is responsible for success than Hispanic women are.33 The gender gap in attributing success to work or luck is mirrored across all minorities. Generations of oppression and economic inequality have reduced the belief in hard work as a factor except among Hispanic women. They have a strong belief in the work ethic that is higher than all other races. Generational Issues Generation enters into the political discussion as an indicator of age. Along with income and education, age is a strong predictor of voter participation among Latinos.34 Latina women have been shown to have strong feelings towards political issues and there is a gender gap in some areas. However, the true measure of the political force that this generates is manifested through participation. Female participation in politics has increased in the recent decades and while studies have shown that men have traditionally been more likely to participate in electoral politics, the last 40 years have seen that gap narrowed.35 In addition, Hispanic women are more likely than Latino men to participate in non-electoral activities such as letter writing, attending town meetings, or organizing community political events.36 Age becomes a factor as studies have reported that "the longer Latino immigrants have been in the United States, the more likely they are to identify as Democrats and to have strong party preferences".37 This increased political awareness and party identification would make the later generation Latina woman more open to receiving political messages.38 Second and third generation Latina women would be more likely to be politically active. This attitude would be reinforced by the Latina woman's attitude that there is an American culture that ethnic minorities should assimilate into. In fact, "Among those who were born in the U.S. and whose parents were born in the U.S. (labeled second generation), we find that females are more Democratic on average compared to males and these differences are statistically significant".39 Generation and age both contribute to the sense of belonging that firms up the Latina women's party identification and enhances their sense of commitment to electoral politics. Causes Latina women will form political opinions and form political alliances based on the same experience that other minorities have had as an immigrant or attempting to assimilate into the American culture. The experience may have included discrimination, which could ultimately in developing a greater sense of equality, charity, and empathy. However, these observations do not hold true across the board. Latina women will form their political alliances, to some extent, in the same fashion that all women do in regards to issues that relate to compassion or are specifically feminist. The American experience can also explain why there is little observed gender gap among partisan Hispanics. Men and women alike have been subjected to the same political system and have experienced similar socialization. These events may have more effect on forming a political opinion or solidifying a party affiliation than gender does. Beliefs among the Latino population are also tempered by the traditional culture of several of the Hispanic heritages that are generally more collectivist than individualistic. This creates a deeper sense of family and community that has resulted in the Latina women's beliefs that there is an American culture that minorities should assimilate into. In addition, the Hispanic culture has traditionally viewed the male as the dominant gender and this weighs into the gender gap. As the economic provider for the family, the male would have greater access to the capitalist economic system that had been denied to women of color until only recently. They would have had the opportunity for promotion and advancement and would be more likely to have developed sympathetic feelings for the economic system and the feelings of self-reliance. The Latina woman who is more likely to be employed in a blue-collar, cleaning, or production situation would not share these feelings.40 This would allow the Latina woman to develop a deeper commitment to the people around her and heighten their sense of sharing. This attribute is further enhanced by the fact that Latina women earn less money than non-Hispanic women and are twice as likely to live in poverty.41 This income gap narrows when the effect of generation and native born attributes are considered. A native born Latina woman earns significantly more money than the immigrant Latina woman.42 As the woman ages, assimilation and acculturation solidifies the Latina woman's political identity and opinions. In addition, as the Latina woman is able to advance their employment situation and reach a greater degree of income equality, the contribution that income gives to the gender gap would subside. The woman would have little reason to switch political parties or significantly alter her political behavior unless challenged by a life event. Discussion This research has confirmed the previous literature that has found only a marginally significant gender gap among Latina and Latino partisans. This was especially true in regards to crime and handgun ownership. However, a significant finding was the lack of a gender gap in regards to spending on national defense. This was contrary to the White population that shows a significant gender gap on this issue. The impact that first generation Hispanics, foreign-born Latinos, and recent immigrants who may not yet view the United States as their primary country of allegiance, could explain this. Another startling statistic was in regards to the Latina woman's lack of propensity to contribute to charity. This attribute is counter intuitive in light of their greater sense of empathy. Their substantial self-perception as being highly empathetic should motivate them to donate to charity. However, the results of the data indicated that Latina men were more likely to be charitable, even though they considered themselves to be less empathetic. This may have to do with the psychological differences between the male and female as it relates to self-perception and self-identity. However, it is more likely the result of the Latina woman's work ethic and belief that hard work is the primary path to success. There is a considerable gender gap on the issue of whether luck or hard work is the main path to success. Latina women, though much more empathetic, may not have sufficient sympathy for the less fortunate when it comes to organized charities. They may perceive the recipients as less than deserving, or taking advantage of the system at the expense of hardworking people. As Latina women age, they become more solidly Democratic than their male counterparts. This is explained in large part based on their views that ethnic minorities have an opportunity for assimilation and that there is a true American culture. Absent of a reason to change political parties, Latina women will form a stronger alliance with the party. In addition, it also heightens the sense of importance that they put on the issues that affect them. It must be remembered that both Latino men and Latina women have maintained a significant Democratic identity in the recent decades, and have overwhelmingly supported the Democratic presidential candidates through this era. However, this support has been soft and there has been some opportunity that Republicans could take advantage of. However, in the end the Hispanic population believes that the Democratic Party is more favorable to them and they have not been given a reason to change. Conclusion Latino men and Latina women have shown considerable support for the Democratic Party in the recent decades. Though this alliance is soft, it has been consistent. This has been largely due to the Republican's failure to address the social issues that Hispanics find important, rather than any success on the part of the Democrats. However, there has been little in the way of a gender gap among Latino partisans. The gap is generally small and may be a variable that changes with the state of current events, rather than being socially or culturally constructed. Generational impact and age works to heighten and solidify the party affiliation of the Hispanic population, and there is some gender gap as Latina women are generally more Democratic. This is the quality of age and maturity that affects all social, ethnic, and racial groups. If the Republican Party desires to gain a larger share of the Hispanic vote, they would do well to address the social issues that are important to Hispanics such as education, the economy, and health care. In addition, they need to target these programs at the younger voters before the strong political ties are formed. There is no significant gender gap on the issues that are important to Hispanics, only a difference in the greater importance that women place on these issues. The increased importance that women give these issues will demand that the Republican Party would need to confront these issues, which may be counter to their tradition of free market individualism. The strategy for gaining positive influence with both male and female Hispanic voters is largely the same as it would be for voters across the board; offer sensible solutions to the myriad social problems of education, health care, and crime that confront all Americans. Bibliography Gonzales, Felisa. Hispanic Women in the United States, 2007 Washington DC: Pew Hispanic Center, 2008 Hardy-Fanta, Carol. "Beyond the Gender Gap: Women of Color in the 1996 Election," Paper prepared for delivery at the 1997 Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association Washington, D.C., August 28 - 31, 1997. 1-26. Hardy-Fanta, Carol, Latina Politics, Latino Politics Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1993. Jesuit, David K. Nirchi, Angela, de Haymes, Maria V., and Peter M. Sanchez, "The 1996 Chicago Latino Registered Voter Political Survey: Political Participation and Public Policy Positions," Journal of Poverty 4, no.1/2 (2000): 151-165. Leal, David L. "Latino Public Opinion." unpublished manuscript, Department of Government, University of Texas, Austin TX: 2004, perg.tamu.edu/lpc/Leal.pdf (accessed 12 December 2008) Lopez, Mark H. The Hispanic Vote in the 2008 Election Washington DC: Pew Hispanic Center, 2008. Merolla, Jennifer and Juana Mora, "The Gender Gap Among Latina Partisans," Paper prepared for presentation at the 2007 Annual Meeting of the Western Political Science Association, March 8-10, in Las Vegas, Nevada, 1-28 Page, Susan. "Political Participation Gap Remains." USA Today, June 27, 2007. Pew Hispanic Center. The 2004 National Survey of Latinos: Politics and Civic Participation. Washington DC: The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004. Suro, Roberto, Fry, Richard, and Jeffrey Passel. 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