Social Institutions - Essay Example

Social s Introduction This paper attempts to summarize the following two articles: “Some Problems in Defining Social Power” written by Dennis H. Wrong and “The Crisis in Social and Institutional Integration” penned down by Bruce A. McDaniel. Some Problems in Defining Social Power by Dennis H. Wrong – A Summary This article examines the concept of social power, from the perspective of several key social aspects. The author begins the article by focusing on the issue of power relations, in a social scenario. He states that during course of social interactions, people do gain control over the actions of one another. Dennis states that asymmetrical power relations are clearly evident when interactions amongst people having same level of social power are taken into account. In certain circumstances, a person “A” controls and determines the actions of the other person “B”. And likewise, in some other specific situations, B attains the position of the power-holder and A becomes the target of this power. As a matter of fact, the author opines that, this scenario is an indicator of presence of healthy social relations. (1) After that, Dennis focuses on differentiating between intercursive power and integral power. At this point, he says that the first-mentioned (intercursive power) is a typical feature of relations that display near-perfect equilibrium of power. Intercursive power can be seen in social interactions where, the power held by one person is same as the one wielded by another individual. This form of power is best explained by throwing light on social relations, in which, all the related parties arrive at a collective decision that is best for their given objectives. In fact, intercursive power makes sure that none of the concerned parties can act in a way that jeopardizes the interests of the entire group. To put it in other words, this pattern (of power) is closer to norms of democracy. (1) On the other hand, integral power is nothing but almost limitless power being vested in the hands of a single group or person. The best example of this type of power is the power held by a state, in the contemporary society. At this juncture, Dennis emphasizes on the fact that, there are laws and authorities to ensure that entities with integral power do not go on to misuse the authority held by them. To elaborate further, things such as elections, provisions of impeachment, among others, play a vital role in controlling the person or group having integral power. (1) Here, it has to be candidly admitted that, precisely defining each and every form of social power is an onerous task. As a matter of fact, the act of conforming to persons with power is seen right from the early stages of human life. As an example, the child submits to the authority of their parents and in the process adheres to several norms of social behavior. Dennis H. Wrong also enumerates the fact that, when a person holding unhindered power uses it over the targets, they definitely get to see the effects desired by them. But in addition, the targets also display some behavioral patterns, which are not intended to be seen by the holder of power. (1) Lastly, the author speaks about the concepts of actual power and potential power. He argues that, actually controlling the actions of others by using power, and the capability of doing so are two different things altogether. Track record is the best means of assessing the extent to which a person or group possesses power to influence the behavior of others. Also, for the power wielded by a person to be a genuine one, it is imperative that even when they are not exercising it, the subjects must be behaving as if the power is actually being exhibited. This can be best explained by an appropriate example. Even when the parents are not in the vicinity, the child still continues to behave in a manner desired by them (parents), lest they incur their wrath. (1) Before concluding the article, the author does not fail to highlight a misconception that is held by a substantial chunk of sociologists. Just because some people possess tremendous financial strength, these sociologists go on to assign immense power to them, and which might not be true in all cases. In this connection, it has to be understood that all the aforementioned affluent people could gain the power, only subsequent to an intricate process entailing crossing of several major hurdles. (1) Summary of “The Crisis in Social and Institutional Integration” by Bruce A. McDaniel Bruce A. McDaniel begins the article by mentioning that society is divided into three areas, and an appropriate integration of which is of paramount relevance. The three areas are: polity, economy and culture. Polity refers to the central democratic government and its several wings at the regional levels, which make sure that redistribution takes place in a proper manner. The economy is the avenue where goods and services are produced and distributed, as well as resources are allocated. The third area is the one that is focused on culture and tradition, and which includes groups and communities, to name a few. As a matter of fact, it is this particular area of culture that takes care of the crucial aspect of appropriate development of individual. (1) Here, the author states that subsequent to the industrial revolution the norms stipulated by culture started losing their relevance, and the capitalism-centric economy gained power very rapidly. As a result of that, the commercial motive emerged as the driving force in the economy, with the aspect of individual well-being and development being fully ignored. (2) At this point, the author speaks about the three patterns of integration, as described by karl Polyani. Polyani explains that institutions pertaining to all the three areas of society can be integrated in three ways: reciprocity, redistribution and exchange. To put it succinctly, reciprocity is the amicable interaction seen amongst members of the society, where each individual gives and takes help from others, according to the situation. This is diametrically opposite to the term “exchange” used in a strictly economic sense, which is based solely on the profit motive. Almost since the ancient era, redistribution has been all about manufacturing materials and storing them, so that the needs of individuals are successfully met, as and when needed. If the last pattern of integration, exchange, has to be successful in attaining its purpose (integration) it is indispensable that it functions in a manner so as to facilitate a system where, prices get adjusted by themselves. (2) At this point, Polyani highlights the unpleasant fact that, in the actually prevalent system of exchange there are several conflicts and that it is the bound duty of the polity in eliminating hostility and restoring amicability. As a matter of fact, he (Polyani) emphasizes on the fact that, it is the dominance of capitalistic forces in the economy that has led to the above conflicts. (2) It is at this point of the article that Bruce throws light on the corresponding scenario of the United States. He mentions that over the past hundred years, the economy of the US propelled by its capitalistic objectives attained a position of immense power. This is so much so that the economy is now in a position to dictate terms to the governments. Several groups in the government are having their interests vested in the prosperity of these mighty economic powers. Owing to that, they are left with no other option but to bow down to the dictates of the economic institutions. (2) As a direct result of all that, in the modern-day USA, reciprocity and redistribution are losing their significance as forces that aid in integration of the aforementioned three avenues. The individual, whose development is essential for successful integration of various institutions, is being viewed just as a lifeless commodity, by the powerful economic groups. There is no denying of the fact that the current market economy has led to a rapid rise in goods and services made and distributed. Yet, the disturbing fact is that the individual has been suppressed. (2) It is now the need of the hour that the government starts to initiate steps for making sure that reciprocity and redistribution are given the due importance. Also, measures should be aimed at development of communities, which address the vital aspect of individual well-being. In addition, when the government acts promptly, in this regard, the communities would attain the needed power to check the activities of unscrupulous economic forces. It is only when reciprocity, redistribution and exchange are treated on par that there can be a healthy integration of social institutions – an integration that leads to harmony in all social and economic activities. (2) Conclusion The topic of this paper is an exhaustive one, and it is just not possible to encompass all the points of the articles in a brief paper such as this one. Yet, a sincere attempt has been made to cover the most important of the related aspects. Sources 1) “Some Problems in Defining Social Power”, academia-research.com/filecache/instr/i/n/548674_instructions.pdf, Internet, Dennis H. Wrong, June 2011. 2) “The Crisis in Social and Institutional Integration”, academia-research.com/filecache/instr/f/a/548674_fax-15508460.pdf, Internet, Bruce A. McDaniel, June 2011. Read More