How And Why Does The Prevalence of Poverty Differ Between Males and Females - Research Paper Example

Annotated Bibliography How and why does the prevalence of poverty differ between males and females? Source Source 2 Source 3 Source 4 Source Household food security in the United States, 2009 Depression in the United States Household Population, 2005-2006 Gender Differences in Depression Gender Differences in Competition: Evidence from a Matrilineal and a Patriarchal Society APA-formatted citation for source Nord, M., Coleman-Jensen, A., Andrews, M., & Carlson, S. (2010). Household Food Security in the United States, 2009 Measuring food security (pp. 1-39): U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Econ. Res. Serv. Pratt, L. A., & Brody, D. J. (2008). Depression in the United States Household Population, 2005-2006 NCHS Data Brief: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender Differences in Depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 173-175. Gneezy, U., Leonard, K. L., & List, J. A. (2009). Gender Differences in Competition: Evidence from a Matrilineal and a Patriarchal Society. Econometrica, 77, 1637-1664. Relevance of source to Research Q Provides evidence for differences in poverty levels between males and females. Shows a difference between the two genders that could have a direct impact on earning ability Shows influences that have the potential to significantly decrease the ability of a woman to work or be productive. Provides experimental evidence of a factor that drives lower pay for females than for males, as well as discussion on this topic 2-3 sentence description of source An annual nationwide survey of 1,000 respondents that looks at the confidence that households have in their food supply. The authors consider a wide range of factors that could drive the observed patterns, although no statistical testing is used. Considers the trends of depression within the United States between 2005 and 2006.The authors show the percentage of people that are depressed per age group, gender and race. A consideration of various psychological factors that make women more susceptible to depression. These include, victimization, chronic strain, biological responses and different coping styles than males . The high rates of depression that women experience a directly related to decreased productivity and quality of life. The paper is an experimental study which examines competition in two societies, one of which is predominately matriarchal and the other is patriarchal. The authors found that in the patriarchal society, males engaged in competition significantly more than females. However, the reverse was true for the matriarchal society. Main Research Question How food security changes across household types What was the prevalence of depression in US households between 2005 and 2006 Why are females more susceptible to depression than males? Why are males more competitive than females? Hypotheses None None Gender differences in stress response and experiences interact to make women more vulnerable to depression No hypothesis given Methodology (quantitative vs qualitative, etc) Quantitative, survey-based Examination and interpretation of results from a quantitative health and nutrition survey Literature review Quantitative experimental study Independent variable(s) Many, some examples are: household type, income level, presence/absence of children, state, number of people in the family. Age, poverty level, gender and race Different types of stressors Society (patriarchal or matriarchal) Dependent variable(s) Food security Percentage of people with depression Depression Level of competitiveness Key Findings Around 15% of households in the US were food insecure. Higher in families led by females only, but solo males and females had the same levels. Related to race, gender, presence of children, size of household and other factors. 80% of people diagnosed with depression experienced some level of difficulties and 27% had significant difficulties in both work and home life. Depression was more common in women and in those of low income Women are affected by many stresses more often than males and are more vulnerable. These factors interact to increase the vulnerability of women to depression. Men from the Maasai society (patriarchal) chose to compete at twice the rate that females did. Females from the Khasi society (matriarchal) were more likely to compete than males. This parallels results observed in western societies. Strengths Considers a large amount of information, many different variables were examined Clearly shows the effects that different factors have on depression Combines the observations of a range of studies Experimental study that looks at significantly different societies with the aim of drawing parallels to western society. Weaknesses No statistical tests and no examination of which of the factors were relevant and which were not Does not determine what differences or drivers were statistically significant and which were not Only considers studies that support the hypothesis, and does not examine any that have other viewpoints. The societies examined are substantially different from western society and consequently there may be many unaccounted for differences. Critically evaluate the content for accuracy, bias and coverage The study was conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture and is an Economic Research Report. Because of this it is likely that the results are valid. Additionally, the survey is undertaken every year, indicating that it is likely to be highly accurate. The authors only examined the survey results and did not conduct it. Consequently no information on the procedure is included in the paper. Paper was produced by the U.S Department of Health and Human Services, so is likely to contain accurate information Study is peer-reviewed and published by the American Psychological Society so is likely to be accurate. However, it covers only one specific area, and is biased towards a particular view point. The study is peer-reviewed and published in a reputable journal. The study is large scale and uses valid scientific assumptions. However, more studies are needed to see how strong this effect is in western societies. Analysis of source as it helps to answer your question Food security is relevant to poverty, although the two factors are not directly linked. This study provides an indication poverty may be higher in women than in men as a result of caring for a family Shows an interacting effect between poverty and depression, as well as between gender and depression, suggesting that once women become involved in poverty it is harder for them to get out. Shows how stressors can contribute to decreasing the ability of women to earn, increasing their susceptibility to depression. Provides an potential means of explaining how women are more susceptible to poverty than males Analysis of 2+ sources (compare/contrast) While most of the sources considered look at poverty (such as Hoynes et al.(2006) and Jacobsen & Mather (2011)), this paper examines food security. The two factors are strongly related, but are not identical, as the authors of this study found that most situations of food insecurity were in low-income familes, some did occur in high-income families. The trends observed in this agree with those found in the studies that have focused on poverty This agrees with the results determined in Nolen-Hoeksema, (2001), which suggest that females are more susceptible to depression Like Croson & Gneezy (2009), this paper provides evidence that males and females are different on a number of levels and they behave differently when presented with the same situation. Agrees with conclusions of Croson & Gneezy (2009), that women are less competitive than males in patricachal societies. Although the study by Cronson and Gneezy did not consider society type most or all of the studies reviewed were of a westernized patrical socierty. Source 5 Source 6 Source 7 Source 8 Source Title One More Time: Do Female and Male Managers Differ? Gender Differences in Preferences Poverty in America: Trends and explanations Upside: Surprisingly Good News About the State of Our World. APA-formatted citation for source Powell, G. N. (1990). One More Time: Do Female and Male Managers Differ? Academy of Management Executive, 4, 63-75. Croson, R., & Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender Differences in Preferences. Journal of Economic Literature, 47, 1-27. Hoynes, H. W., Page, M. E., & Stevens, A. H. (2006). Poverty in America: Trends and explanations. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20, 47-68. Wright, B. R. E. (2011). Upside: Surprisingly Good News About the State of Our World. Bloomington, Minnesota: Bethany House Publishers, 49-59. Relevance of source to Research Q Suggests that performance differences between males and females do not exist in management positions, suggesting that other factors are driving women underachieving This paper is relevant to determining why females and males end up differently in terms of poverty as it address tendencies towards specific behaviors Provides a definition of poverty and shows the status of females compared to other groups Suggests reasons why females earn less than males 2-3 sentence description of source This paper considers whether males and females differ in management styles and motivation. The authors summarize a range of studies to examine whether males and females differ in terms of risk taking tendencies, social preferences and competitive decisions. Studies were taken from a wide range of sources. The authors consider the trends in poverty that have occurred in the last approximately 50 years. They define poverty and consider both predicted and actual trends. The author considers many aspects where people tend to perceive the world as being bad where in fact much has been improving. Of interest is the chapter on financial status throughout the world. This includes a section in gender differences and earning trends in the United States. Main Research Question Do female managers have different skills than male managers? What are the gender differences in risk, social and competitive preferences? How has poverty changed in America Is the economy getting stronger or doing worse? Hypotheses Males and females different in skills No hypothesis Despite a rising gross domestic product, the poverty rate has remained relatively static Economically, people tend to have more money and earn more Methodology (quantitative vs qualitative, etc) Qualitative literature review Detailed literature review, including tables and quantitative differences Analysis of past poverty trends Review of literature, examination of trends Independent variable(s) Gender Gender Year, GDP per capita, type of household Gender, country, job type, position Dependent variable(s) Skills present Risk preferences, social preferences, competitive preferences Poverty rates Pay rate, Income Key Findings Female managers are as effective as male managers The authors found that women were less likely to engage in competition and were adverse to risk. In social situations, women were more likely to respond in a situation specific manner than males were Poverty rates have remained relatively constant despite the increase in GDP. This is a difficult trend to explain, even when considering the increasing contribution of women to the labor force In general, within the United States, households earn much more than they did in the past. The low pay of females may not necessarily be due to racism, but could be connected to job types or preferences for certain positions. Strengths Study considers a range of literature, including peer-reviewed studies Considers a range of studies, examines the strengths, weaknesses and conclusions of these, and the overall outcomes off all of the studies Detailed paper that considers a range of trends as well as evaluating current levels of poverty Comprehensive and recent Weaknesses Study is comparatively old, and significant advances have been made in the field since Only considers three behavioral themes Data collection is not clearly explained Non-experimental and may not contain all relevant literature Critically evaluate the content for accuracy, bias and coverage The paper is peer reviewed and takes an even-handed approach, considering evidence that supports and does not support its theory A very detailed paper that considers a range of recent literature in the field This is a recent paper, and because it considers a large number of years trends are clearer and more accurate than most papers The source is a non peer-reviewed book and the author has a specific perspective. Because of this there is risk that some bias may be present. However, the author does consider a significant range of literature. Analysis of source as it helps to answer your question Shows that females are capable of achieving as high as males, so why do they not? Shows that there are significant differences between males and females Very relevant to the research question and helps to show why poverty is important as well as the trends Helps to show that women earn less than men and potential causes Analysis of 2+ sources (compare/contrast) The conclusions of this study directly contrast those of Gneezy et al. (2009). Both studies focused on whether male and female behavior different. Gneezy et al. suggested that yes, behavior does differ, and it is a result of environment, while Powell (1990) suggests that they do not differ. It is possible that both authors are right, and that behavior differs in some areas and not others. However, the results of Gneezy et al.’s study should be prevalent in the area of management, as competition is widespread in this area. This study, Powell (1990) and Nolen-Hoeksema (2001), suggest that men and women exhibit significant differences which leads them to act and perform in different ways. These differences may potentially drive the disparities observed betweeen male and females ability to earn money, or choices of how to spend money. Ultimately, this could driver observed differences in poverty between the genders. Like Snyder & McLaughlin (2004), the authors of this study consider poverty to be a significant factor that is detrimental to society and needs to be addressed. This study considers the same area as Hoynes et al. (2006) but does so from the opposite perspective. While Hoynes et al. examines poverty this study considers income. Taken together, these studies show that alghough wages are increasing, poverty is remaining relatively constant. Source 9 Source 10 Source 11 Source 12 Source Title Female-Headed Families and Poverty in Rural America The Gender Consequences of the Demographic Dividend: An Assessment of the Macro and Micro Linkages between the Demographic Transition and Economic Development Dynamics of Female-headed Households in Pakistan: Evidence from PIHS 2000-1 and PSLM 2004-2005 Population Bulletin Update: A Post-Recession Update on U.S. Social and Economic Trends APA-formatted citation for source Snyder, A. R., & McLaughlin, K. D. (2004). Female-Headed Families and Poverty in Rural America. Rural Sociology, 69, 127-149. Schultz, T. P. (2009). The Gender Consequences of the Demographic Dividend: An Assessment of the Macro and Micro Linkages between the Demographic Transition and Economic Development. Word Bank Economic Review, 1-15. Khalid, U., & Akhtar, S. (2011). Poverty Dynamics of Female-headed Households in Pakistan: Evidence from PIHS 2000-1 and PSLM 2004-2005. PIDE Working Papers, 80, 1-16. Jacobsen, L. A., & Mather, M. (2011). Population Bulletin Update: A Post-Recession Update on U.S. Social and Economic Trends (pp. 1-5): Population Reference Bureau. Relevance of source to Research Q Examines how and why females suffer more from poverty than males. Although the study is based in another country, it shows how women allocate time and their priorities Tests whether there is a gender bias in poverty in Pakistan. The results can be applied to other countries. Very recent summary of current situation economically within the United States 2-3 sentence description of source Considers information from 1980-2000 to determine how changes in households and the structure of families has changed income and poverty. Poverty was prevalent in metro city and non metro areas. The authors examine the demographic transition occurring in Matlab Bangladesh. This is done using a family planning social experiment. They examine how women shift their time between work and family priorities The authors make use of two household surveys to test whether poverty differs between genders in Pakistan The authors consider what effect the depression has had on the economy of the United States. The period from 1998 to 2011 is considered. Gives information on official poverty levels. Main Research Question How is poverty of female-headed families affected by whether they are in metro or non-metro areas? What are the social consequences of the evolution of the age composition of a particular population? Is the ‘feminization of poverty’ a real phenomenon? What effect has the recession had on economic and social trends within the United States? Hypotheses None given None given None given None given Methodology (quantitative vs qualitative, etc) Quantitative analysis of household poverty level, compared to family structure and area Use of a family planning social experiment, quantitative Quantitative Qualitative analysis of information from census and statistics data Independent variable(s) Family structure, metro area Change in labor force, women’s labor force participation, household savings, child birth rate Location, household type Race, age, year Dependent variable(s) Poverty level Women labor earnings Incidence of poverty Poverty, homeownership, unemployment, birth rate, education Key Findings Found that female-led families in non-metro areas have a higher risk of poverty than those in other areas Family structure is not driving this effect, as the structure of families is not different between the two areas. As a country grows women begin to have an increased role in the labor force, allocating more time to working and less to family. The decrease of childbearing was shown to increase the income of women compared to those where childbearing in higher numbers Poverty in households that were headed by females was less prevalent than in male headed households. This was due to females receiving remittances Authors determined that living in rural areas decreased the likelihood of poverty. Although the recession officially ended in 2009, it continues to have a significant effect on families throughout America. Strengths Analytical study based on a large database over multiple years. Experimental Analytical study, authors did the research themselves Used reliable data which had a large sample size and considered a wide range of effects Weaknesses Researchers used data from population surveys and census information rather than gathering it themselves Only considers one geographic area Small sample size and problems with quality of measures Did not consider whether results matched that of any other literature Critically evaluate the content for accuracy, bias and coverage The latest trend the paper examined was 2000, so it is possible that the observations have significantly changed since then. The paper is peer-reviewed from a reputable journal so it is likely to be accurate. The use of data limits potential bias. This paper is experimental and is likely to be accurate for its area. However, extrapolating from the results for this geographic region to general conclusions need to be done carefully, as some factors of that society are not present in western society. One of the key findings of the paper was that rural residence significantly decreased poverty. This may not be applicable to the United States due to differences in rural environment and opportunities. One limitation of the accuracy of the article is that it comes mainly from reported Analysis of source as it helps to answer your question Helps to show that female-led families are at a higher risk of poverty Shows the role that child raising has on the potential for women to earn income Helps to show whether the differences in poverty by gender are a real or perceived effects Shows current poverty trends, and helps in understanding poverty as a significant issue Analysis of 2+ sources (compare/contrast) Like Nord et al. (2010) this study shows that female headed families fare significantly worse than male headed ones. The two studies complement each other, as one examines poverty and the other food security. This paper helps to confirm that the trends observed by Nord et al. (2010) were the result of poverty. Like Nord et al. (2010), this paper considers the rearing of children as a significant factor which limits the ability of women to earn as much money as males. Additionally, both studies suggest that both time and energy is taken up by raising families, and this is more prevalent in females than in males. Unlike, Snyder & McLaughlin (2004), this study found that females did not have significantly higher levels of poverty than males. This result was because of female-led households receiving a large amount of benefits. This indicates that the situation is not the same in all countries. However, the results from this study cannot be generalized to other countries, as types of benefits and requirements for them differ. Hoynes et al. (2006) also considered poverty trends and determined that they were relatively unchanged. However, that paper only considered up to 2006, while a significant recession occurred slightly later. Source 13 Source 14 Source 15 Source Title US Fertility Prevention as Poverty Prevention:: An Empirical Question and Social Justice Issue. APA-formatted citation for source Romero, D., & Agénor, M. (2009). US Fertility Prevention as Poverty Prevention:: An Empirical Question and Social Justice Issue. Womens Health Issues, 19, 355-364. Relevance of source to Research Q Shows that childbearing is considered to be a significant contributor to poverty. 2-3 sentence description of source The authors examine a United States policy that looks at the provision of a family-cap policy that limits the number of children a person can have. This raises many ethical questions, and the authors examine these as well as whether the change is likely to be effective. Main Research Question Is a family-cap reform effective? Hypotheses None given Methodology (quantitative vs qualitative, etc) Qualitative review of literature Independent variable(s) Presence of a family-cap policy Dependent variable(s) Female’s reproductive behavior Key Findings The presence of a family-cap does not have an effect on reproduction of the poor. The policy needs to be examined. Strengths Considers a wide range of literature Weaknesses Does not examine any direct evidence or data Critically evaluate the content for accuracy, bias and coverage The study appears to be written without bias and carefully considers both viewpoints with significant research and care. It thoroughly covers the research area and makes relevant predictions. The article appears to be accurate as it considers policy that is currently in practice and the perceptions towards this. Analysis of source as it helps to answer your question Helps to show that child bearing may be a significant source of poverty and that steps to minimize this are not being effective. Analysis of 2+ sources (compare/contrast) Like Nord et al. (2010), this study places considerable emphasis on the role that childbearing plays on increasing poverty. While Nord et al. (2010) does not make any recommendations concerning what should be done, this study examines the effects of reduction policies. They suggest that further research is needed to address this problem. Read More