Prostitution in Relation to Strain Theory - Essay Example

Prostitution In Relation To Strain Theory Introduction Statistical reports submitted by worldwide ities at national levels as well as in the international levels have been quite precisely stating that over the past few decades the rate of women populaces getting engaged with prostitution has increased substantially. Many humanitarian theorists and experts belonging to the other fields of sociology and sexology have argued that prostitution should be treated as any other profession in the modern world which makes people capable to earn their living by materializing their skills. When prostitution is performed with free consent and willingness as an income source, it should also be categorized as a legal profession. Based on a similar vision, many countries including New Zealand and Germany along with Australian provinces of New South Wales, Western Australia, Tasmania, South Australia have acknowledged prostitution as a legal profession (Cho, Dreher & Neumayer, 2013; Mossman, 2007). On the contrary, criminologists and various other experts view prostitution as an illegal and strictly immoral conduct which should be confronted with the imposition of rigid laws and well defined social policies. It is in this context that studies have revealed prostitution to act as a link between the increasing rates of various other criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, human trafficking and child maltreatment among others (Cho, Dreher & Neumayer, 2013). Not only sex crimes, but prostitution has also been accounted for degrading social health causing diseases such as Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and increasing mortality among women populaces in particular which further tends to restrict the healthy growth of the society. Hence, accumulatively, this particular professional dimension has been accused to cause social as well as economic hindrances and thus is justified to be treated as a social malpractice or illegal conduct (Stransky & Finkelhor, 2008). Undoubtedly, whether to categorize the conduct of prostitution as legal or an illegal profession has presented a debatable question. In order to explain this particular apprehension, the study will apply the strain theory in relation to prostitution with the expectation that such elaboration may assist in obtaining a critical idea surrounding this issue. The study will initially focus on describing the basic tenets of strain theory, towards elaborating on prostitution in relation to the specifications mentioned under this functionalist theory through a literature review mechanism. Following the findings and understandings generated in the initial phase, the study will be concluded after a summarized critical evaluation of the identified issue. A Brief on Strain Theories Various theories have been applied since the past decades to develop a comprehensive understanding based on the humanitarian approach towards the mechanisms or assumptions applied in the regular conducts of human society to differentiate the role played by women and that performed by men. These theories have mostly been focused on the learning of social behavior and therefore are often termed as applicable in the understanding of criminal conducts often practiced by individuals in the modern day society. Strain theory can also be regarded as one of these theories which can be applied with the intention of identifying the fundamental reasons due to which women are driven towards prostitution. It is also quite likely that the application of this theory will provide with better knowledge regarding the driving forces of prostitution within the modern society and thus state if such practices should be legalized or restricted rigidly. In the modern day contexts, sociologists often categorize strain theories into two groups, i.e. the Classical Strain Theory and the General Strain Theory based on the fundamental assumptions and the realistic development of those rudiments in the theoretical progression of these conjectures. Irrespective of their distinct diameters in terms of their applicability in criminology, strain theories can be observed to focus on a particular notion. This notion constitutes the identification of drivers that influence an individual to conduct criminal offences or behave in an unsocial manner which is often regarded as ‘taboo’ in the regular social premises (Deutschmann, 2006). Classical Strain Theories As per the commonly attributed assumptions in the classical strain theories, crimes are generally conducted by individuals being under tremendous pressure or stress. Notably, theorists have been inculcating their ideas and assumptions when describing the conjectures in accordance with the social changes occurring in the practical world which has resulted in the continuous development of new editions to the classical strain theories. The classical strain theory was initially coined by Robert Merton and was further developed by Albert Cohen, followed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (Agnew, 2008; Deutschmann, 2006). Robert Merton’s Theory of Anomie/Anomia Robert Merton was the pioneer in addressing the idea of ‘anomie’, which is also referred as ‘Anomia’. Based on Durkheim’s functionalist theory of anomie, Robert Merton described that individuals are likely to be driven towards criminal conducts being hassled by the strain caused by the gap existing between the expectations of the society from them and their aspirations to achieve a particular goal. From a sociologist’s viewpoint, attaining ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’, through the ‘defined avenues of social structure’ often act as a motive of criminal conducts giving rise to deviance. It is when an individual is unable to attain the aspirations following the set rule in the society; he/she intends to conduct deviances (Deutschmann, 2006). In is in this context that Robert Merton explained the role of adaptability by the means of conformity, retreatism, innovation, rebellion and ritualism. According to Merton’s theory of anomie, conformity arises when the individual is assisted with various alternatives which assures them with almost equal satisfaction as that promised by the ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’ or acts as an alternative means to attain those objectives and therefore develops adaptability within that individual to restrain them from conducting deviances. Similarly, retreatism is often identified when an individual tends to reject both the ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’ and the means which social norms prescribe to attain those ambitions. Innovation, in this regard, attempts to conceal one’s behavior of cheating or even stealing. Thus, it also acts as an alternative means to achieve success. The fourth factor, which was stated by Robert Merton, to develop adaptability among individuals is rebellion. According to Merton’s theory, rebellion occur when the socially set norms and avenues are countered by individuals as an invalid or rather unjustified means to obtain the ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’ which further leads to certain developments in the social structure building adaptability amid the population. Last but not the least; the fifth factor, i.e. ritualism was affirmed by Merton to be identified when individuals accept the means directed by the social structures but simultaneously, attempt to interpret the goals or ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’ in a way which is quite distinct from the actual meaning (Deutschmann, 2006). Gaining a brief idea about the rudiments of Merton’s theory of anomie, the issue in relation to prostitution can be argued. As stated by Merton in his strain theory, individuals are primarily driven towards deviances when their aimed ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’ are observed to be unattainable with the help of means or socially defined avenues. Again, when studying the aspirations working behind women to select the avenue of prostitution, it can be observed that the profession works as a major source of income involving minimum requirement of skills or challenges as observed in other labor intensive environments. In the words of Edlund & Korn (2002), “prostitution is low-skill, labor intensive, female, and well paid” (pp. 181). Studies reveal that women, especially belonging to the middle and lower income groups, attempt to get involved in prostitution in order to attain a better lifestyle accepting it as an easy means to acquire larger incomes and therefore satisfy the purchasing power required to facilitate a higher-class lifestyle choice (Weitzer, 2007). Hence, if the higher class lifestyle choice is considered as the ‘culturally prescribed aspirations’ to the prostitutes, applying Merton’s theory of strain it can be demonstrated that prostitution acts as a gap mitigating factor between the existing social avenues. To be precise, it has often been observed in developing nations such as India, Nepal and Bangladesh among others that women adopt prostitution due to various reasons among which, one of the fundamental causes is poverty and their inability to attain a healthy life for themselves as well as for their family through the set social avenues due to shortage of resources. Multiple aspirations have been found to be active in driving women in these nations towards prostitution which also involves the need of their family or even another person who intends to gain hugely from sex trafficking (Saggurti, Sabarwal, Verma, Halli & Jain, 2011; Day, 2008; Jha & Madison, 2006). Contextually, applying Merton’s strain theory in relation to anomie, it can be noted that the adaptability factor in terms of retreatism, wherein women attempt to reject the defined social avenues or rather means to obtain a better lifestyle or any other aspiration acting behind their choice to become a prostitute and therefore cause deviance in the social structure. It is in this context that even though Merton’s strain theory is applicable in defining the structural causes of prostitution in terms of economic influences and socio-cultural aspirations, it has been unable to identify the origin of such conducts and its consequences. Albert Cohen’s Theory of Status Frustration Adding upon the assumptions specified by Robert Merton in his theory of anomie, Albert Cohen stated that not only individual aspirations but groups formed in social structures also play a major role in driving individuals towards conducting criminal offences. According to Albert Cohen, the tendency towards committing delinquencies arises at a younger age which is apparently identifiable during the early school days among pupil. Stating precisely, Albert Cohen affirmed that young school going students often tend to witness the strain existing between their abilities (which is defined as lower-class) and the standards applied in school (which are noted as middle-class standards). In other words, Cohen’s theory of status frustration is based on the assumed strain which exists between the applied middle-class standards in schools and the lower-class students. This strain was further observed by Albert Cohen to result in the poor performance of students causing dissatisfaction among them. In such circumstances, when adequate support or guidance is not received either from the home environment, i.e. from their parents or guardians, or from their mentors in schools, they seek necessary information from their peers. It is during this phase that another influence plays a vital role. As lower-class students are often segregated from the group of high-class students (i.e. the students having higher grades and performing well in comparison to the set middle-class standards in schools), the lower-class students tend to seek assistance from other lower-class peers which thus result in the formation of groups, which Albert Cohen accounts as ‘gang’. In his strain theory, Cohen further postulates that these gang formations at a younger age not only refuse to abide by the set middle-class standards but contravene or breach such social specifications causing deviances or ‘gang delinquencies’ (Deutschmann, 2006). From a critical perspective, it can be stated that the basic tenets of this theory signifies that the inability of a particular group to gain the respect and the social position that is aspired creates strain and thus lead towards ‘gang delinquencies’. It is in this context that such kind of delinquencies deciphered or rather performed by a group of people possessing similar interests, aspirations and complaints against the already defined social norms and processes are assumed to be based on frustration as per Cohen’s theory of status frustration which further drives them towards conducting crimes. Hence, in simple words, it can be stated that incompetencies in obtaining social identification leads to frustration which at the group level causes ‘gang delinquencies’ (Peck, 2011). Applying these understandings in relation to Cohen’s theory of status frustration, it can be affirmed that one of the major reasons in the increasing rates of prostitution has been the incompetencies of women at various parts of the world to avail the requisites to sustain a better life maintaining a social status. Recent studies conducted by Weitzer (2007), Hughes (2004), Cundiff (2004) and Farley, Cotton, Lynne, Zumbeck, Spiwak, Reyes, Alverez & Sezgin (2003) among others revealed that women, who belong to lower-income group families and are observed to possess comparatively lower skills than that prescribed through the social structures gets into the profession of prostitution to obtain a status of recognition. Hence, a certain degree of frustration arises amid these groups which further get channelized among the peers facing similar challenges and thus, results in augmenting rates of prostitution. However, it is worth mentioning in this context that even though the status frustration theory proves beneficial in justifying the increasing rate of prostitution in the worldwide arena, it fails in rendering a complete idea of the issue by lacking in the assessment of situations when women are forced to prostitution through human trafficking without any choice irrespective of their skills (Scoular, 2004). The Differential Opportunity Theory by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin Expanding the assumptions founded in the previous classic strain theories by Robert Merton and Albert Cohen, Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin presented as more narrowed view towards the conducts of deviances or delinquencies. According to the theory of Cloward and Ohlin, resources are distributed unevenly in the social structure which consequently gives rise to gaps or strains between the aspirations and the means available to them in their course of success. This particular gap, further gives rise to frustration and therefore play a major role in driving young people towards deviances such as trafficking and sex crimes (Deutschmann, 2006). Critically assessing the theory, it can be stated that the inequality in resources tend to cause differences and lack of opportunities for a particular group in the social structure which drives them towards social crimes, which are often termed as ‘organized crimes’ in order to obtain equal opportunities from the social structures. Thus far, Cloward and Ohlin’s theory of differential opportunity described that poverty acts as the main cause of social crimes which can also be related with the apprehension in prostitution rates from economists’ point of view (Paternoster & Mazerolle, 1994). As stated by Baron (2006), prostitution mainly involves women belonging to poor families who are observed to be homeless, facing significant challenges in availing an appropriate job or deprived from the resources required to stabilize their financial as well as socio-economic status. It is in this context that monetary goals and aspirations act as the major drivers of sex crime and other organized crimes underneath the profession of prostitution. Contextually, the study of MacKinnon (2011) reveals that inequality within the national economies play a fundamental role in encouraging trafficking issues and prostitution. Although legal codes are practiced by governmental bodies to restrict such socially defined malpractices or immoral conducts, groups conducting these crimes tend to breach such avenues and thereby commit these offenses in order to attain their aspirations of equality (MacKinnon, 2011). General Strain Theory by Robert Agnew Another dimension of strain theories is categorized as the general strain theory developed by Robert Agnew. This particular theory is often perceived to render a broader idea regarding the linkage between social components and the occurrences of deviances or crimes within a given cultural setting. According to Agnew (1992), there are fundamentally three types of strains which drive an individual towards commencing crimes or delinquencies. The first strain is when individuals fail to attain their desired goals or aspirations, blaming the social structure or their lacunas or other factors obstructing their progress towards social status recognition. The other strain occurs when people tend to confiscate others’ rights, demoralizing their social respects and status along with any other “valued stimuli” leaving the later to suffer frustration and rage towards the social structure. This particular strain further motivates them to conduct criminal activities to depict their disregard for the practiced social avenues. In the similar context, the third strain emphasized upon, in the general strain theory of Robert Agnew, specified that people attempt to commit activities which are generally termed as unsocial or illegal when they face obligatory or unpleasant circumstances (Deutschmann, 2006; Agnew, Brezena, Wright & Cullen, 2002). When relating the theoretical assumptions with the aspect of prostitution, the second and the third strains described by Agnew in his general strain theory can be observed as quite appropriate in justifying the consequences and the reasons behind women getting engaged or falling victim to such immoral offences. For instance, as revealed by Jeffreys (2008), women engaged in prostitution have to face significant demoralization from the society which generates a feel of rage and frustration among them. In the continuation of such feelings, these women are further observed to get engaged in criminal offences such as human as well as drug trafficking, forced sex crimes and child maltreatments. Such activities, which decipher a direct breach of the social norms and avenues specified through the existing social structure, have further been observed to render a feel of justness to most of the women engaged with prostitution (Smirnova, 2012; Murphy, 2007). Correspondingly, the third strain described by Agnew, in his theory, i.e. the influences created by unpleasant environment or conditions directly addresses the reason why women tend to get engaged in prostitution when forced (Jeffreys, 2008; Deutschmann, 2006). From an overall point of view, concerning the aspect of prostitution in relation to the assumptions hypothesized in the above described strain theories, it can be apparently observed that the general strain theory of Robert Agnew present a more realistic and broader understanding of the phenomenon in comparison to the other classical strain theories. Conclusion ‘Prostitute’ and ‘prostitution’, a term and its implied profession, are well capable to attract mass attention from multiple dimensions including the sexologists, sociologists, philosophists, criminologists, humanitarians and even economists. As per the commonly described definitions, prostitution is noted as a profession wherein a person (mostly women) offers her body for sexual pleasure in return of money similar to any other material offered through marketplaces. To be specific, “the offering of the body by a person of either sex for the purpose of arousing or gratifying the sexual desire of another for payment in return” (CARICOM Secretariat, 2009: pp. 8). In general instances, the act of prostitution is commonly attributed to women sex workers. With reference to the above discussion, it can be stated that the aspect is a complex phenomenon which will essentially require significant attention in the upcoming days. In many instances, it has been witnessed that studies have been focused primarily on stating if prostitution is justified and whether it should be allowed in the social structure. Studies have also been performed in order to define and then re-define the social as well as legal vision towards prostitution. However, when concerning the facts revealed from the application of strain theories with regard to the aspect of prostitution it was observed that the causes to such immoral practices lay within the existing social contexts, which if not managed skillfully, may continue disrupting all the efforts put forward to counter such occurrences. Conclusively, it can be stated that even though the application of strain theory did not prove quite beneficial in defining whether prostitution should be legal or its should be abolished, the findings generated through this study was capable enough to apparently suggest that the underlying attributes of prostitution are much serious and must be dealt with greater significance. References Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency. Criminology, 30(1), pp. 47-87. Agnew, R., Brezena, T., Wright, J. P. & Cullen, F. T. (2002). Strain, Personality Traits, and Delinquency: Extending General Strain Theory. 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