Citizenship and Human Rights - Essay Example

? Article evaluation Introduction The following paper will assess a research article ‘Citizenship and human rights: Ideals and actualities’ by Lydia Morris (2012). The paper will summarize the article and then discuss the article in terms of a model from Burawoy’s typology, identifying the model that seems to fit the research paper. It will point out the features of that model in the paper. The model selected will be evaluated in terms of practicing sociology. Finally, the conclusion will summarize the reasons why the model selected is the best to explain the research paper Marshall’s model of social citizen Morris paper analyzes Marshall’s model of social citizen as presented by Soysal (2012). Marshall’s essay ‘citizen and social class outlines the development of British citizenship through the chronological sets of rights; civil, political and social (Marshall 1992). This process brought about economic welfare and security. In his model Marshall asserts that “equality of status is important than equality of income” (Marshall 1992, 33). This implies that the status gives an individual social worth regardless of how much someone earns. At this point, Morris questions the status of Marshall Model in Soyal’s article on how to conceptualize and measure change, and to speculate a little about the relationship between the normative and the empirical in this process. A hypothesis in the works of Marshall states that ‘there is a kind of basic human equality associated with the concept of full membership of a community’ (Marshall 1992) which is not consistent with the inequalities of social class. In his essay, Marshall aimed at testing how far the hypothesis held true in Britain at his own time when he wrote the essay. The preservation of economic inequalities has been made more difficult by the enrichment of the status of citizenship. This was seen as modern drive towards social equality as the latest phase in the evolution of citizenship. He also observed that there was a stratified status system creeping into the citizenship and that has resulted into conflict within our social system. From those statements from marshal, Morris feels that the essay is not clear as to whether the system whether it is the ideal or what the conclusion should be. Rights as governance Granting of rights creates an opportunity for surveillance or control. The works of Lockwood enlightens is helpful in addressing these possibilities and sets a framework for a nascent sociology of rights (Lockwood 1996) institutional unity of citizenship, market and bureaucracy is central to the delivery of social cohesion. Lockwood proposes that ‘the ethos and practice of citizenship is at least as class relations to structure group interests and thereby fields of conflict and discontent’ (Lockwood 1996,536), this is a reverse of Marshall’s model. According to Lockwood, is so because citizenship remains an ideal whose actualization is less always less than complete. The inequalities of citizenship are argued to be caused by two elements; the presence or absence of a right and the possession of moral or material resources – the latter exerts a positive or negative effect on the actual enjoyment of a right. The article by Lockwood seems to be concerned not only with inequalities generated by the functioning of citizenship but also concerned with migrant rights. It can therefore inform analysis both of the way citizenship can be stratified by the disciplinary and control measures with accompany welfare claims and the way migrants can be stratified by their purpose of entry and by the rights accordingly granted or denied to different categories. ….the answer to the question as to what rights do is that they stratify, discipline and divide often with the reference to national interests. Morris points out the relationship between the two axes in Lockwood’s schema answers her question about the role and treatment of ‘ideal’ conceptions of rights and citizens in sociological analysis. The way civic stratification functions is dynamic. This is implied from Lockwood’s argument that actualization of the ideal citizenship is not complete. The dynamism is influenced by moral and material resources, linked to conceptions of the ‘good citizenship’. Rights are open to manipulation by state in pursuit of policy goals and therefore an implication that there is a connection between rights and controls. There is a link between formal entitlement and informal status or social standing. The possession of a right brings moral worth and when it is denial undermines it. Estimation of worth is tied to the notion of ‘good citizen.’ Citizenship and human rights The understanding of citizenship is that it acts as a vehicle through which most people access their universal human rights. Donnelly (2003) says that the rights are availed through lower level provisions rather through the international law. Morris agrees with Soysal that there is no opposition or separation between citizenship and human rights. Tuner (1993) looks at the universal human rights as a historical phase in the development of rights, which goes beyond citizenship. Citizenship has been used as a measure against which to measure the power of human rights. Burawoy’s Model and the Paper Burawoy divides sociology into four distinct types; professional, critical, public and policy. The four types of sociology are distinguished by the audience (knowledge for whom) and the forms of knowledge for what (2005a:269). Professional sociologists are involved in programs of scholarly research to create instrumental knowledge that is meant for an academic audience. Critical sociologists are involved in programs of scholarly research that creates reflexive knowledge that is meant to influence the actions of an academic audience. Public sociologists generate reflexive knowledge that is meant to influence of a broad extra academic audience. Policy sociologists generate instrumental knowledge that is defined by the needs of the clients. It has been noted that the concepts distinguished by Burawoy are useful but ambiguous. Morris’s paper establishes the development of British citizenship. This establishment is done by evaluating and questioning Marshall’s model of social citizenship. In an essay ‘citizenship and social class’ (Marshall 1992), Marshall presents three sets of rights; civil and political as unfolding chronologically in the development of British citizenship. Marshall has one assertion that ‘equality of status is more important than equality of individual social worth.’ Status defines who a person is in the society regardless of how much income that one earns and in itself, brings a feeling of being worth. Morris points out that the essay by Marshall Stands as a precursor to the presents work and takes recognition as it focal point. However, Morris raises a question to the Marshall’s model as presented in Soysai’s article as to how conceptualize and measure change. Marshall’s work presents a hypothesis, which accepts that there is basic human equality associated with the concept of being a full member in the community (Marshall1992, 6). Marshall wanted to test if this hypothesis held true in Britain. Marshall observed that the stratified status system was creeping into citizenship and therefore causing conflicts within the social system. Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangements into social classes and division within a society (Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda 2010). Modern stratification in the western societies relates to cultural and economic classes arranged: upper class, middle class and lower class. The survey includes a number of data sources. The rationale for carrying out the research is to show the relationship between citizenship and human rights and to what extend has the ideal been achieved in comparison to the actual situation. There are a number of key findings; the rights have a role to play in the governance of the society. Lockwood draws to our attention that; when grants are granted it opens an opportunity for surveillance and control. This implies that rights are not yet fully developed. They are pruned to be manipulated. It is evident that institutions that are central to social cohesion are structurally grouped into classes of the same interest and therefore become a field of conflict and discontent (Lockwood 1996, 536). Citizenship therefore is an ideal whose actualization is far from being achieved. The methodology used in the research is secondary research, drawing information from published sources. Morris used information from Soysal’s article. The conclusion shows that the author is still not sure and clear as to whether citizenship and human rights will ever be actualized other than just being an ideal. She looks at the question how far we are today by looking at how we can benefit from the universal human rights. The paper calls for change of the social system to enable all people attain their rights without necessary being intimidated or make them feel they are worth. The issue of funding the research is not mentioned. Evaluation of the model Policy sociology provides solutions to social problems. The goals of policy sociology are defined by the client, which could be the government. It provides instrumental knowledge. This is knowledge that can guide in solving a specific problem in the social world. Information gotten from social is open to an extra –academic audience and it is likely to affect the public in general (Burawoy 2005). There are critics who argue that sociology is not oriented to policy and that it is largely impractical, ineffective and irrelevant (Wiles 2004, Davis 2004). According to them, Burawoy’s view of policy sociology is narrow. Other views hold that sociology has influence on policy and therefore contributes to the policing of organizational life (Giddens 1990 14, 16). Conclusion Citizenship and rights are related as one acts as a means of getting the other. It takes time and a process to attain full citizenship. The social system in which the people are expected to get their rights is never a straight line. Various changes will have to take place. Bibliography Burawoy, M . 2005. American sociological association presidential address: For public sociology’, British Journal of Sociology, 56:2, 259-294. Davis, P. 2004 ‘Sociology and Policy Science:Just in Time?’, British Journal of Sociology 55(3): 447–50. Giddens, A. 1990 The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge: Polity. Lockwood, D. 1996 ‘Civic Integration and Class Formation’, British Journal of Sociology 47: 531–50. Marshall, T.H. 1992 [1950] ‘Citizenship and Social Class’ in T. Bottomore (ed.) Citizenship and Social Class, London: Pluto Press Macionis, Gerber, John, Linda 2010 Sociology 7th Canadian Ed. Toronto, Ontario: Pearson Canada Inc.. pp. 225 Soysal, Y. 2012 ‘Citizenship, immigration and the European social project: rights and obligations of individuality’, British Journal of Sociology 63: 1–21. The British Journal of Sociology 2005, Volume 56, Issue 2. p260-290 Turner, B.S. 1993 ‘Outline of a Theory of Human Rights’, Sociology 27: 485– 512. Wiles, P. 2004 ‘Policy and Sociology’, British Journal of Sociology 55(1): 31–4 . Read More