Identity Formation - Dissertation Example

?Identity Identity is a negotiable concept that can be defined in various ways; with the simplest defining it as a self image that one yearns to portray to the outside world (Woodward, 2002). He asserts that identity is closely associated with a person’s social meaning and represents who individuals are. Identity concept is presented as complex i.e. comprised of a number of inner qualities and the outer representations of the self. Woodward (2002) asserts that it consist of the innumerable defining characteristics that wholesomely defines who people are in various moments and situations. The characteristics of self that are harnessed in the definition of identity include gender, sexuality and the connectedness to a certain religion, culture, family or ethnic society. Identity is inclusive of our looks, beliefs, fears and personalities. According to Sennett (2000:176-177), it is also “an unfolding story…continually recast in the course of experience”. Identity is a perspective (Sennett, 2000:176). This is because a person’s self-image can be distinct from the way they are viewed by other people such as colleagues and friends; each person has a distinct opinion on personal identities. According to Helbing (2010), human beings do not have a free choice on the formation of the identity they wish to portray to others. He posits that people refer to view culture and society on how far or close to the norms of the society their behaviours should be i.e. what sort of human beings do we want to be and to what sort of personalities the society will expect us to portray. For example, the female identity of a Muslim living in Saudi Arabia would be different from that of a Christian living in the UK. Modernisation has transformed the concept of identity, initially viewed as permanent unchangeable part of the self, into alterations that leads to a complete new outlook (Heritage and Clayman, 2010: Watkins, 2012). For example, surgical processes can alter the physical body characteristics such as body height and shape, face image and gender. Additionally, use of literary materials such as books and attending self help workshops can be used by people who are not content on staying entangled in the fixed traditions for transformation into modern roles. Watkins (2012) refers to the influence of modernity on identity as an indication that the current society has greater choice over identities more than ever before. He asserts that identity can both influence or be influenced by the nature work that individuals are engaged in, education status, financial status and the type of homes that owned. Theories of Identity Post Modernism Theory According to Han, Kuchinke and Boulay (2009), postmodernism can be viewed as the application of crucial aspects of modernism while ignoring others. Therefore, according to postmodern theory, the concept of identity has been transformed from an authentic energy originating from within into a mask that has been cast over mankind. The mask emanates from external factors that constantly affect human beings through determining what is right or wrong and normal or acceptable. Post modern theory alludes that human beings wear these masks to enable them fit in the world around them. Consciousness and awareness determines the degree to which human beings choose their identity in relation to having it imposed on them and the impact of the external factors (Han, Kuchinke and Boulay, 2009). Awareness of the power of the external influence indicates that people are akin to the measures necessary for enabling them fit into the accepted norms of the reality. Post modern theory indicate that we do not have much influence over identity the way we think we do i.e. we are moulded by others and mould ourselves according to what is currently acceptable and popular. The modern concepts of identity are affected and changed by the numerous message sources and experiences on who and how to be. According to Woodward (2002), the major role emanates from the changes in social communication e.g. the mainstream media, television and films. The impact of modernism on identity is clearly discussed by postmodernism theory. Sheldon Stryker’s Identity Theory Sheldon Stryker indicates that the human social behaviour is subject to designation of all environmental aspects, which are both physical and social. Most of the designations are related to the meanings associated with the positions people occupy in a social structure (Stryker, 2002). The positions are accompanied by expectations on how people enact their roles and how they comport themselves with respect to others. Through designation of the personal positions, people understand how they are supposed to behave, the societal expectations associated with the positions they occupy, and reference or definitions of the situations that characterise their designations. However, Stryker alludes that behaviour is not fully determined by designations because the form and the content of interaction may change when undertaking certain roles. George and Simmons’ Theory of Identity Stryker’s theory is more structural, whereby the culture and social structure determines most of the identities held by individuals. This is in contrast to the George and Simmons’ Theory of Identity that emphasises that roles are improvised as people yearn to realise their various goals and plans (Heritage and Clayman, 2010). They define the role identity as a character that people associates with self as occupants of certain social positions. Role identities act as components of individual’s plans and goals because presenting the identity of oneself to people affects the human behaviour. Moreover, the theory posits that people evaluate their potential through role performance. Peter Burke’s Identity Control Theory Another theory that explains the nature of identity is Peter J. Burke’s Identity Control Theory (Stets and Burke, 2000). Burke asserts that individuals possess a generalised view of their self or an idealised self in all situations but the practical self or the self-image guides the daily interactions. The idealised self influences how individuals view themselves. However, their real identity is exemplified by the results of their behaviour depending on how they undertake their roles. The theory yearns to explain the internal configuration of the self with reference to the manner in which individuals put efforts in the verification of their identity associated with certain roles. Burke argues that the intensity of the negative emotions that affects an individual’s identity increases the salience of the identity in a situation, the importance of other people who have not verified the identity and the degree of continuity. Jonathan Turner’s Theory on Transactional Needs Jonathan Turner’s Theory on Transactional Needs is sceptical of the existence of linear hierarchy of salience or prominence as posited by other theories. However, he argues that some are more general than others; general identities makes individuals yearn to be verified more by others (Hintlin, 2008). The basic identities asserted by the theory include:core identity that defines the emotions and conceptions that individual possesses and apply in most identities; social identity that explains the conception that individuals have upon themselves in respect to their involvement in various categorical units; group identity that explains the conceptions that individuals have on their incumbency in corporate units; and the role identity that defines the conception that individuals have as role players (Helbing, 2010). Identity and Sexuality According to Fonagy et al. (2009), the development of the gay, lesbian or bisexual (GLB) sexual identity is characterised by complexity and difficulties emanating from environmental hostility. This is because most of these individuals are not born in backgrounds that support such identities. Sexual identity development process among GLB individuals is a factor of incongruence and inconsistency among its cognitive, behavioural and affective components due to stigmatisation and hostility. Behaviour may always coincide with identity and affect. However, with reference to psychological theory, Weegmann (2007) argues that the affected individuals will always seek to attain congruency because incongruity generates psychological tension. This implies that homosexuality-oriented affect and behaviours force individuals to adopt identities that are consistent with the sentiments and behaviour e.g. gay or lesbian. Being identified as gay or lesbian makes people to practise behaviours consistent with the identity i.e. homosexuality. Weegmann (2007:59-76), asserts that the incongruence among the homosexuality identity has contributed in the transition from heterosexual to homosexual behaviours. He alludes that sexual orientation is not a choice as it occurs in the early childhood without prior sexual experiences. Identity and Religion According to Haddock and Sutch (2003), religion is inextricably bound with the various constituents of human identity; from the family to the general creation. This is because religion yearns to give meaning to the nature of the human existence. Just like other religions, Muslims belong to various nationalities, economic levels and social cultures, brought together by a common identity; Islam. Since the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Islam has been viewed in a different perspective, especially within the western countries. Misperceptions about Islam and Muslims gave rise to essentialist views painting the religion and its followers as pro-violence, uncompromising, anti-western and fundamentalist (Nash, 2012). Although the external attitudes do not auger well with the reputation of the faith, it has helped in strengthening the internal unity among individuals associated with the faith to counter the external hostility. Conclusion In the modern world, choosing identity is a complex experience that is consciously or unconsciously influenced by numerous factors. Although people may be tempted to think that they hold full autonomy to the form of identity they assume, the degree to which they exercise this authority over identity depends on factors such as awareness level, opportunity and being responsible for oneself (Woodward, 2002:Sennett, 2000). Identity is viewed as a product of interconnectedness that people share, not only with others, but also with the family of descent, the media and the social cultures that they reside (Watkins, 2012). Some of the theories associated with identity include Post modernism theory, Sheldon Stryker’s Identity Theory, George and Simmons’ Theory of Identity, Peter J. Burke’s Identity Control Theory and Jonathan Turner’s Theory on Transactional Needs. Sexual identity development process among GLB individuals is a factor of incongruence and inconsistency among its cognitive, behavioural and affective components due to stigmatisation and hostility (Fonagy et al., 2009; Weegmann, 2007). Religion is inextricably bound with the various constituents of human identity; from the family to the general creation (Haddock and Sutch, 2003; Nash, 2012). References Fonagy, P., Krause, R., Leuzinger-Bohleber, M. & Eizirik, C.L. (2009) Identity, gender, and sexuality: 150 years after Freud, London, Karnac. Haddock, B. & Sutch, P. (2003) Multiculturalism, identity and rights, Routledge, London. Han, H., Kuchinke, K. & Boulay, D. (2009) ‘Postmodernism and HRD Theory: Current Status and Prospects’ Human Resource Development Review, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 54-67. Helbing, D. (2010) Quantitative socio-dynamics: Stochastic methods and models of social interaction processes, Berlin, Springer. Heritage, J. & Clayman, S. (2010) Talk in action: Interactions, identities, and institution, Chichester, UK, Wiley-Blackwell. Hintlin, S. (2008) Moral selves, evil selves: the social psychology of conscience, London, UK, Palgrave/Macmillan. Nash, G. (2012) Writing Muslim identity, London, Continuum. Sennett, R. (2000) ‘Street and Office: Two Sources of Identity’ in Will Hutton and Anthony Giddens (eds) On the edge, living with global capitalism, Jonathon Cape, London, pp. 175-190, Stets, J. & Burke P. (2000) ‘A Sociological Approach to Self and Identity Theory” (cited in note 1); Sheldon Stryker and Peter J. Burke, ‘The Past, Present, and Future of Identity Theory’ Social Psychology Quarterly, vol. 63, pp. 284–97. Stryker, S. (2002) Symbolic interactionism: a social structural version, Caldwell, Blackburn. Watkins, C. (2012) ‘Book Review: The Reformation of the Landscape: Religion, Identity and Memory in Early Modern Britain and Ireland’ Folklore London, vol. 123, no. 3, pp. 366-367. Weegmann, M. (2007) ‘Group Analysis and Homosexuality: Indifference or Hostility?’ Group Analysis, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 59-76. Woodward, K. (2002) Understanding identity, London: Arnold. Read More