Racial and Ethnic Differences: African Americans - Essay Example

? Final Paper Racial and Ethnic Differences: African Americans Krystal Yedinak SOC308: Racial & Ethnic Groups Jeremy Bennett March Table of Contents Pg. No. 1. Introduction 3 2. Ethnicity and Race 3 3. African – American Ethnic group, stratification, and conflict 4 3.1 Stratification Outcomes 6 3.1.1 Discrimination 6 3.1.2 Prejudice 7 3.1.3 Violence and Crime 8 3.1.4 Ethnic conflict 9 3.1.5 Intra-racial conflict 11 3.2 Ineffectiveness of Measures taken by Government 11 4. Ethnicity and Racism in International context 12 5. Conclusion 12 References 13 Appendix Appendix 1: Reproduction of the question on Hispanic Origin and Race from the 2010 17 census Appendix 2: Population by Ethnic and Race for the United States: 2010 18 Appendix 3: Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Younger (Ages 0–64) and Older (Ages 65–plus) Populations: United States, 2008 19 Appendix 4: Conflicts between Social Groups 19 Appendix 5: Number of Executions and Race of Prisoners executed during 1976-2009 20 Appendix 6: Violence curves by Race/Ethnicity 20 1. Introduction In the United States (U.S.) and across the world, the growing racial and ethnic diversity reality has heightened the interest in race and ethnicity issues because of its impact on all aspects of life. It plays a very important role in all human beings’ life because they are identified and defined by their race and ethnicity and many a times used as a basis for discrimination or appeasement. And as the ethnic groups such as Hispanic, Asians and African Americans proportion grows in the United Sates so does inequality among them and that is the harsh reality Americans have to face (Kearl, 2010). The primary aim of this paper is to analyze racial and ethnic differences in U.S. and how race and ethnicity are perceived in U.S. context. The African-American ethnic group is selected to analyze a society demonstrating ethnic stratification and conflict, including evidence of prejudice and discrimination. In addition to that a critical analysis of similarities and differences of ethnic and racial issues in international context is examined in comparison with U.S.  2. Ethnicity and Race It is paramount to understand the criteria used for making and defining the distinctive groups. Usually biological or cultural factors are used for categorizing human populations in U.S and other parts of the World. People are categorized into Ethnic groups based on certain cultural and more often than not on physical characteristics that differentiate them from others significantly (O’Neil, 1997). An Ethnic group consciously share culture, language, religion, customs, norms, history and practices; that are common to all (Crossman, 2013). Ethnic groups not only exist just because of some common culture or national origin but they share a cultural bond and identity is based on unique social and historical experiences (Crossman, 2013). On the other hand Race is defined based on biological factors in other words variety of species, a population set with distinctive anatomical traits such that from other races can be clearly differentiated. However it has been established that human races are not based on biological realities rather cultural and social constructions because human beings are mostly homogenous, that is 99.9% identical. Yet physical attributes like color of skin, facial features, texture of hair, body shape are used frequently to cluster people in distinct groups or rather races. Categorization based on such traits are often deceptive as these natural attributes are adaptations to their physical environment and biological variations change constantly and are complex and can be found in other populations as well. Despite of these, physical superficial characteristics are used around the world to distinguish races as it is easy to make out from distance even though they are inaccurate. Distinctive races exist and are real in today’s world even though it is established that it is a social phenomena rather than a biological one and to understand it rather than studying biology, social and cultural interaction must be looked into (O’Neil, 1997). Every society is prone to social, racial and ethnic stratification, where society is divided based on social class, race and ethnic groups that leads to disproportionate life chances along the lines of class, ethnic groups and race (Hussain, 2010). 3. African – American Ethnic group, stratification, and conflict: It is claimed that African Americans are the only ethnic group that has migrated to U.S. involuntarily, as they have been brought as slaves forcibly from Africa and instead of receiving their rightful share of American dream have been stripped of their culture (Kearl, 2010). Even though they are the second highest ethnic group after Whites in America, suffer discrimination and racial abuse and it is suspected that it might never diminish (Kearl, 2010). In 1997 U.S. office of Management and Budget (OMB) developed categories of ethnicity and race definition referring to groups which individuals belong, identify with or belong in the eyes of the community” and based on this categorizes all U.S. citizens, eligible non-citizens and resident aliens (OHR, 2013, p.1). First the individual’s ethnicity is designated, does he belongs to Hispanic or Latino group or belongs to Not Hispanic or Latino. Then his race is identified whether he is American Indian or Native of Alaska, Asian, Black or African American, Hawaiian Native or others islands of Pacific or White (see appendix, 1). According to OMB (OHR, 2013, p.1) Black or African American race categories are defined as “a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa” and also refers to people who indicate themselves as Black, Negro or African American or state origin as Kenyan, Haitian or Nigerian (Humes, Jones and Ramirez, 2011). The population of African-American stood at 38.9 million and out of the total population, represents 13 percent and increased about 4.3 million during 2000 and 2010, the third largest increase (see appendix 2 and 3 for more details) (Humes, Jones and Ramirez, 2011). However though significant in numbers they belong to ethnic minority group (CDC, 2012), as minority is not referred to numbers but “a minority group is made up of members of a social group that is systematically denied the same access to power and resources available to the dominant groups of a society, but who are not necessarily fewer in number than the dominant group” (Wonser, 2012, p. 9). 3.1 Stratification Outcomes African – Americans are subjected to racial and ethnic stratification because of their skin color and are stereotyped, prejudiced, and discriminated both socially and institutionally and also self-fulfilling prophecy (Hussain, 2010). Research studies found that in today’s United States blacks continue to suffer disadvantage because of discrimination persisting against them and their complexion has a significant effect on the outcomes of stratification such as the attainment of education, occupations they hold and income (Keith, 1991). 3.1.1 Discrimination Even though discrimination based on ethnicity and racism is deemed illegal yet it takes place in different forms and African Americans have to face it in every walk of life on daily basis. It is claimed that 98 percent of African Americans face racial discrimination is some form or other and even children experience the same. It may be in the form of personal insults, structural barriers and exclusionary and hostile social environments (Sanders-Philips et al, 2009). For example African Americans are consigned to poorest neighborhoods of the cities for housing and their children are confined to school systems that are inferior and lack adequate resources, thus indirectly steeling away the opportunity to get skilled positions with higher pay by weakening their education. Even employers looked down upon hiring employees belonging to such neighborhoods as they get stereotyped and avoid them without being openly discriminative, even their tones are used against them for housing and jobs just because of their identifiable accent. Also social barriers are erected to disrupt their upward mobility in the social strata. A group’s concentration to one neighborhood drives it to poverty that is passed down to generations (Massey, 2010). Thus long existing systems allowed upper privileged class to discriminate subtly and maintain the status quo. (Massey, 2007). 3.1.2 Prejudice According to Massey (2007), stratification plays an important role in evaluating people based on two psychological dimensions namely warmth and competence, warmth refers to how attractive others find a person and competence refers to purposefulness and efficiency of a person. And African- Americans were subjected to prejudice in both these dimensions, they were perceived to lack warmth and competence from the beginning even without interacting (Massey, 2007). Just because they are different and are assumed to have certain distinctive characteristics others are afraid of them and thus react negatively towards other ethnic groups mostly without any valid justification (Dogra, 2011) and can be reduced only with mutual interaction and understanding (Dogra, 2011). Racial profiling, stereotyping and typification are all result of prejudice against African Americans. Racial stereotyping refers to the assumptions made against an individual solely based on their appearances (Al-Obaid, 2009), and profiling is the use of race by police as the sole basis to initiate any law enforcement activity against an individual (Meehan and Ponder, 2002). For example in Ohio Cincinnati, 19 year old Timothy Thomas, an African- American was shot by police officer John Roach to death claiming he scaled a fence and had about 14 misdemeanor outstanding warrants. His death led to 2 days of protest and riots across the city. The police officer was acquitted and blamed Thomas for provoking Roach to kill him (ACLU, 2005). This was not a single incident similar such incidents happen frequently in different cities of America (ACLU, 2005) and mostly African Americans drivers are pulled out for ticketing in traffic offences. Prejudice and discrimination against African Americans not only impacts the current generation but also the future generations. It affects the psychological state and health of children who are disposed to such environments and social experiences at such younger age. Their children foster powerlessness, injustice and inequality perceptions as their parents are meted out with racial in discriminations. Ultimately affecting their biological and psychological health resulting in unhealthy behaviors and negative attitude towards the society they live in (Sanders-Philips, et al, 2009). 3.1.3 Violence and Crime Apart from discrimination and abuse, it was also found that crime rate and violence among African Americans is higher than whites, as compared to whites, the likelihood of getting murdered is 6 times more and more over it is intra-racial (see appendix 6) (Sampson, Morenoff and Raudenbush,2005 ). In a study conducted by Sampson, Morenoff and Raudenbush (2005) called the social anatomy of racial and ethnic disparities in violence in neighborhoods of Chicago, it was found that odds of violence against blacks is 85 percent higher than whites, however odds against Latino is 10 percent lower, the factors responsible for this gap according to the findings were parent’s marital status, immigrant generation and characteristics of neighborhood inhabited that are linked with racial stratification. Even though there is little empirical evidence that crime can be explained by race and ethnicity however it is evident by police statistics that violent crime rate is higher in poor communities that are inhabited by minority ethnic groups, apart from that criminal justice institutions biases in treating racial and ethnic groups reflect the crime disparities rather than actual offences committed (Sampson, Morenoff and Raudenbush, 2005). However it must be noted that Homicide victims in U.S. are mostly from lower socioeconomic class rather than from a particular ethnic or race (Hawkins, 2003). Yet eruption of racial controversies, affirmative action decisions, brutalization and killing of innocents starting from Emmett Till to Abner Loina, media celebrity O.J.Simpson’s case, charged with killing his white wife and convicted of the same, and different perceptions of whites and blacks bring out the great racial and ethnic divide (Goldfarb, 2010) also blacks are executed more than any other ethnic groups (see appendix 5). 3.1.4 Ethnic conflict Racial conflict in America exists from centuries and continues despite of America being called as a melting pot (ACLU, 2005). In United States conflicts persist among rich and poor social class, native born and immigrants and black and whites, (see appendix 4) (Pew, 2009). However this phenomena is not restricted to US alone, in almost all nations of the world it exist in some or the other form, but some deny conflict potential or restrict it by limiting entry severely, like Australia and Great Britain (Kearl, 2010). And more often than not the social conflict takes the shape of violent conflict. There were several instances of conflicts between white and black groups, and it is not that always blacks are victims of racial conflict, it is mutual. For example in 2009 Denver, black gangs often vented their hatred against whites before robbing and assaulting them in a crime wave that lasted for four months (Gathright, 2009). The conflict is not only between whites and blacks, it is among blacks and Hispanics and blacks and immigrants too, a power struggle between these minority groups is giving rise to conflicts and sometimes leading to violence and riots (Fletcher, 1998). There are many theories that explain existence of Ethnic and Racial conflict or Harmony. The three major theories from different perspective of sociology are “functionalist theory, symbolic interaction theory and conflict theory” (Crossman, 2013, p1). According to the Functionalist theorists Ethnic harmony exist when the ethnic and racial minorities assimilate totally into a society, assimilation refers to the process by which minority group gets absorbed socially, culturally and economically into the majority group. And conflict exists because of lack of assimilation (Crossman, 2013). Conflict theorists argue that society is inherent to class-based conflict and its essential part, further racial and ethnic conflict exist of class conflict, so to reduce ethnic and racial conflict first class conflict must be taken care of (Crossman, 2013). Symbolic Interaction theorists focus on the role played by social interaction in conflict, and that race and ethnicity are social phenomena and they argue that social interaction can be used to reduce conflict and hostility among interethnic and interracial groups (Crossman, 2013). All these three theories can explain the African-American’s interracial and interethnic conflict and can be used to reduce conflict and create harmony. Prejudice gives rise to discrimination leading to abuse, conflict and violence, violence in turns strengthens prejudice thus it’s a whole never ending vicious cycle that embroils African-Americans. 3.1.5 Intra-racial conflict Conflict also exists among the African- American groups. It has been found that light skin blacks are held with higher prestige than darker blacks and received more privileges extended by the white dominant society and over generations resulted in lighter complexion blacks disproportionately most successful among the group. Whites considered blackness as sign of inferiority or undesirable thus preferred blacks with lighter complexion; this gave rise to intra-racial conflicts as darker blacks were subjected to more discrimination than lighter blacks (Keith and Herring, 1991). 3.2 Ineffectiveness of Measures taken by Government To be race-neutral government enacted number of laws, amendments under pressure from protests, leaders in power and pressuring interest groups. However all these remain on paper only, but discrimination, abuse and conflict persist because of social factors (Al-Obaid, 2009). Even though government has taken affirmative action to reduce the discrimination against African Americans, it still takes place. For example, take for example in construction industry it was hard to find black workers or subcontractors. CEO of UMB Inc the largest construction firm owned and operated by an African-American, Paul King stated that only fifty years ago only 0.6 percent, 1.6 percent and 0.2 percent of blacks were there in electrical unions, carpentry and sheet metal trade and bank’s restrictive practices never let black contractors effectively develop into successful enterprises. Subsequently to remedy this affirmative action was taken to correct the racial exclusion. Yet the CEO himself has to shut down his own construction sites because of lack of black workers or contractors (King, 1999). Another fact that emerges is affirmation action or correcting the wrongs done in the past also rouses negative feelings in the opposite group and gives rise to new discriminations (Mclaus, 2010). 4. Ethnicity and Racism in International context Despite of Europe being the unrivaled and architect in regional human rights, racism and racial conflicts are increasing in Europe because of immigration and economic conditions and becoming more frequent and accepted as normal in many European countries (Shah, 2010). The recent ethnic riots in France and United Kingdom are evidence of it (Allen, 2012; BBC, 2012). Australia has a very racist past not only towards aborigines but also towards immigrants. In Middle East too racism exist against colored people, immigrants and socially backward. In Asian countries it is mostly against nationals of other Asian countries and sectarian and lower class people. In Africa also it is rampant; it is mostly ethnic and tribal conflict. Thus ethnic and racial conflict persists in some form or the other, towards some ethnic or race in every part of the world (Shah, 2010) because it’s human nature to seek domination. 5. Conclusion From the above analysis it can be concluded that African Americans continue to suffer prejudice, discrimination, abuse and susceptible to crime and violence despite of many measures taken by various governments to remedy and make U.S. race-neutral. Conflicts persist because it is a social and cultural construction and can be reduced gradually by changing social interaction and behavior by all concern. In contemporary U.S. race and ethnic relations are no more dominated by black and white division alone, new ethnic groups have joined in shifting the focus (Marger, 2011). It must also be considered that racial conflict is not limited to one race or ethnic group in U.S. or limited to United States alone, it is inherent to society and conflict is commonplace all over the world (Marger, 2011) even though may exist in different forms and not as openly discussed as in United States. References ACLU, (2005). Racial Profiling: Definition. American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved February 26, 2013. From http://www.aclu.org/racial-justice/racial-profiling-definition Allen. P. (2012). Gangs fire at police as riots erupt in France: Cars and buildings wrecked in orgy of violence. Daily Mail UK.  Retrieved February 28, 2013. From http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2188133/Gangs-police-riots-erupt-France-Cars-buildings-wrecked-orgy-violence.html Al-Obaid. R. (2009). Racial Conflict in America: As told by Akron, Ohio Residents. Akron Urban League. Retrieved February 24, 2013 from http://www.uakron.edu/dotAsset/1661668.pdf BBC (2012), England Riots one year on: Culprits jailed for 1800 years. BBC News London. Retrieved February 25, 2013. From http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-19111720. CDC (2010), Racial and Ethnic Minority Populations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved February 28. 2013 from http://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/populations/REMP/definitions.html#Def Crossman. A. (2013). Sociology of Race and Ethnicity. 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Belmont, USA: Cengage Learning Publishers. Massey. D.S. (2007). Categorically Unequal: The American Stratification System. Russell Sage Foundation. Mclaus.C, (2010), Discriminated People Advantages – Negative Aspects. Buzzle. Retrieved February 25, 2013 from http://www.buzzle.com/articles/discriminated-people-advantages-negative-aspects.html. Meehan.A.J. and Ponder. M.C. (2002). Race and Place: The Ecology of Racial Profiling African American Motorists. Justice Quarterly. Vo.19. No.3 Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Retrieved February 27. 2013. Form http://www.uakron.edu/centers/conflict/docs/Meehan.pdf OHR, (2013). Definitions for New Federal Race and Ethnicity Categories. Office of Human Resources. Georgia Tech. Retrieved 25 February, 2013. From http://www.ohr.gatech.edu/race%20definitions O'Neil, D. (2006). Overview. Ethnicity and Race. Retrieved February 15, 2013, from http://anthro.palomar.edu/ethnicity/ethnic_1.htm#return_from_ethnic_identity_question Pew. (2009). Black-White Conflict isn’t society’s largest. Pew Research Social and Demographic Trends. Retrieved February 26, 2013. From http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2009/09/24/black-white-conflict-isnt-societys-largest/ Sampson, E.J. Morenoff. J.D. and Raudenbush (2005).S. Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence. American Journal of Public Health. Vol. 95. Issue 2. Pgs. 224-232. Retrieved February 21, 2013 from http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/sampson/files/2005_ajph.pdf Sander-Philips.K. Settles-Reaves, Walker D. Brownlow J. (2009). Social Inequality and Racial Discrimination: Risk Factors for Health Disparities in Children of Color. Pediatrics – Official Journal of the American Academy of Pediatrics. 124; S176. Retrieved February 23, 2013 from Shah, (2010), Racism. Global Issues. Retrieved February 20, 2013 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/165/racism#RacisminAsia Treas J, and Carreon, D. (2013). Diversity and Our common Future: Race, Ethnicity, and the Older American. Generations Journal of the American society on Aging. Retrieved February 28, 2013, from http://www.asaging.org/blog/diversity-and-our-common-future-race-ethnicity-and-older-american Wonser. R. (2012) Race and Ethnicity. Lesson 9: Introduction to Sociology. Appendix 1: Reproduction of the question on Hispanic Origin and Race from the 2010 census Reproduction of the question on Hispanic Origin and Race from the 2010 census (U.S. Census Bureau (2010) In Humes.K.R. Jones.N.A. and Ramirez.R.R, (2011, p.1). Appendix 2: Population by Ethnic and Race for the United States: 2010 Population by Ethnic and Race for the United States: 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau (2010) In Humes.K.R. Jones.N.A. and Ramirez.R.R, (2011, p.6). Appendix 3: Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Younger (Ages 0–64) and Older (Ages 65–plus) Populations: United States, 2008   0–64   65+     Number in 1000s Percent Number in 1000s Percent Non-Hispanic White 168,253 62.7 31,237 80.0 Black 35,387 13.2 3,315 8.5 Asian 12,254 4.6 1,294 3.3 Hispanic 44,282 16.5 2,661 6.8 AIAN/NHPI 3,383 1.3 261 0.7 Two or more races 4,906 1.8 260 0.7 Total 268,465 100 39.028 100 AIAN/NHPI is American Indian and Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander. Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2008 Annual Population Estimates         Racial and Ethnic Composition of the Younger (Ages 0–64) and Older (Ages 65–plus) Populations: United States, 2008Treas J, and Carreon, D. (2013, p.1). Appendix 4: Conflicts between Social Groups Conflicts between social groups (Pew, 2009, p.1) Appendix 5: Number of Executions and Race of Prisoners executed during 1976-2009 Number of Executions and Race of Prisoners executed during 1976-2009 (Wonser, 2012, p.22) Appendix 6: Violence curves by Race/Ethnicity Violence curves by Race/Ethnicity (Sampson, Morenoff and Raudenbush, 2005, p.229). Read More