Cultural Hegemony In American Elementary Schools - Essay Example

? Cultural hegemony in American elementary schools Table of contents …………………………………………………………………………..3 Introduction………………………………………………………………………4 2. Literature Review………………………………………………………………...6 3. Research Focus……………………………………………………………………..10 4. Methodology……………………………………………………………………..11 4.1Secondary Research……………………………………………………………11 5. Findings………………………………………………………………………...12 5.1 Radnus Elementary School and Cultural Hegemony…………………………….12 5.2 Linguistic Hegemony in American Elementary Schools…………………………..14 5.3 Cultural hegemony in the American Secondary Schools in Contrast with the Elementary Schools..........................................................................................................................16 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………18 Abstract: This paper focuses on the essence of cultural hegemony and its impact on different elementary schools in America. Initially, the paper provides a short glimpse of cultural hegemony and its impact. Subsequently, it dwells on the varied nature in of hegemony elementary schools across America. In the following section an elaborate discussion of the literature review on the topic, delivered by different eminent scholars, are furnished in a synchronized manner. Evidence has also been obtained from a sample population of three teachers and 7 parents. Finally, the paper provides its findings, based on the evaluation of information forthcoming through the research, to address the research questions. 1. Introduction: Hegemony is defined as a concept that is primarily used to portray the use of unconcealed and delicate privilege amongst a social system. This signifies a supreme or dominant group’s social and cultural reforms as universal, and hence confirms the social, cultural, political, and economic power condition of that dominant group. The great social thinker Antonio Gramsci explains the concept of hegemony through his path-breaking works. His concept has been applied and tested in a significant number of social systems to illustrate how domination and marginalization of groups occur through different socialization processes. Gramsci, on the other hand, considers hegemony as the impulsive of the mass to the general direction forced on their social life by the dominant, fundamental group. This approval or acceptance by the people is historically enjoyed by the dominant groups, owing to their prestigious positions and functions in the world of production. A notable example of cultural hegemony is the way English language is treated and acknowledged in public school, which force the students to replace or rather improve upon, their Spanish skills. In the modern world, especially in the post globalization scenario, there is a general feeling that in the order for students to be successful in educational institutions they need to master English language skills. This trend has become a predominant feature in schools that do not consider linguistic diversity as an essential component. Thus, American public schools promote this cultural hegemony which is a fact that academicians in the US do acknowledge. This can be evidenced from the way Latinos, American Indians, and other students of colors are being educated in public schools by inducing in them not only the dominant, middleclass, protestant social and cultural values but also by enforcing them to accept their presumed inferiority. A prominent Educational theorist of the present times argues, that cultural hegemony is significantly imposed against increasingly diverse student populations by professionals who are not aware of how discrepancy in social status and power relations infuse the school’s curriculum, organizational structure, and politics. The sample population of three teachers and seven parents, interviewed during the process of this research, also attest to the fact that students from the minority groups like Muslims, Native Americans and those from other countries like Bolivia, India, Saudi Arabia etc are studying in various American schools. They also confirmed that cultural exchange takes place in schools. However, as can be discerned from their deposition, the dominant feature in schools is the American culture and its transmission. Most of the parents who were interviewed also harbored an apprehension that their children ingested American culture, to the extent that it might erode their own culture. Thus cultural hegemony has played a significant role in the lives of the students in the American elementary schools. Therefore, it becomes imperative to analyze the changes that it has brought upon the education system in the US. The interaction of moral education and cultural hegemony is also the superstructure of focus in this paper. The concept of moral education, proposed by the classical French sociologist Emilie Durkheim, is the crux of this paper. Durkheim states that through moral education, the society acts as a single entity and it is absolutely necessary for the agents of the society, that is, the individuals, to attain moral education. He further contends that teachers act as the proponents of moral education in schools. Such moral education starts very early but it evolves with the changes in the domestic circumstances of the small child. It gathers momentum when the child’s sphere of society enlarges with respect to family, education and religion. Therefore, the inhabitants of these different spheres play predominant roles in the moral education of the child. Besides, moral education is a dynamic concept which changes with time over various cultural and social groups. Durkheim further claims that, ‘Not only doe’s man’s range of behavior change, but the forces that set limits are not absolutely the same at different historical periods’ (Devine, n.d.). A Muslim parent, Mrs. Abdul, who have been interviewed during the process of this research contemplates that the schools “sometimes teach them (students) some values that do not fit with my culture” (Abdul). Most of the other parents who were interviewed share the same view. Thus, it transpires that schools play a key role in the formation of the personality and cultural traits of an individual. The research questions that this paper mainly deals with are: 1. How cultural hegemony relates to various social aspects of students studying in various elementary schools in America? 2. How far and to what extent they are valid and justified? 2. Literature Review: This paper intends to present a review of literature relating to various studies undertaken by eminent researchers. Through an in depth evolution of literature on the topic, this paper also explores and suggests ways through which cultural hegemony in schools can be analyzed. A maestro in the field of sociology, Durkheim exposits that school is a felicitous institution for fostering moral education. Durkheim states that teachers play a significant role in transmitting cultural knowhow, which is the crux of secular morality among their students. Through moral education an individual transforms into a new being that is matured and responsible. Durkheim was a hardcore believer of altruism. He equated all morality with altruism. According to him society is a perfect recipient where individuals who are the agents of society can perpetrate violence for the sake of religion or for the deposed pay off of the society. In order to reaffirm the collective nature of the society, the individuals indulge in such activities. The methods used by Durkheim for infusing moral education take a sequential order. Firstly, it instills a sense of discipline among the students which need to be followed by a willingness to behave in accordance with the collective interest of the society. Finally, it must inject a sense of autonomy within them. Any achievements through these processes will lead to altruism and moral collectivism. Durkheim also emphasizes that through moral education, society will not only become valuable entity and moral reality but it will also behave as an organism (Durkheim, 2002). Cultural hegemony can be found to be playing a predominant part in the society as can be evidenced from the study conducted by Bishop et al, the report of which is titled, “A Weapon in the Struggle for Popularity and Normative Hegemony in American Secondary Schools.” The paper focuses on two common problems encountered in secondary education schools which are: peer abuse of unskilled, socially weaker students and the influence of peer culture on the students of those schools where they directly or indirectly get discouraged in academics which prevent these students to unleash their actual potential. In order to identify these two problems a documentation of the ethnographies of secondary schools has been done in eight suburban schools with the help of nearly 100000 students at Educational Excellence Alliance School. Upon these observations, a mathematical model was structured which was based on peer harassment and popularity. Besides, the pressures for conformity that were created by the struggle for popularity were also considered and then tested along with the data from the Educational Excellence Alliance. The findings emphasize that there has been a curvilinear relation between harassment and academic effort and it has also been found that mainly nerds and the slackers were harassed and bullied (Bishop, 2003, pp. 4-7). In another paper titled, “The Hegemonic Curriculum and School Dropout: The Newfoundland Case” the author Gedge tries to figure out a solution to the problem of dropout rates and low achievements of the students which is indeed a matter of grave concern. The study focuses on the organizational restructuring and curriculum reforms, which are being formulated by the New Found Land government which include a Royal Commission on Education, a revised Schools Act, and a one?man task force that have investigated the high failure rate among first?year New Found Land students in mathematics and science at Memorial University. Among the other development programs undertaken by the department is the school improvement program which commenced in 1989. Several other school based innovations adopted in this area include curriculum modification and pedagogical experimentation based on the thematic and whole language teaching besides individualized instruction. However, as can be seen from the available evidence, despite the implementation of such policies the future of the school remains somewhat uncertain with the high dropout rates still continuing. This has generates waves criticism against the policy makers involved (Gedge, 1991). In Altenbaugh’s work, ‘Workers’ Education as Counter Hegemony: The Educational Process at Work People’s College, 1907-1941’ the need for education of the working class is the topic of focus. The paper brings to limelight the fact that the working class should be awakened from their lethargy and protest against being deprived of education. They need to be motivated by the development of new ideas and aspirations. This paper does not attempt an automatic and mechanical revolutionary working class in the modern system of production. The optimal solution lies in incorporating certain duties which need to be executed in order to create an organized revolutionary working class backed by proper education (Altenbaugh, n.d.). There are also scholars like Dewey and Freire who illustrate the role of education in the construction of a democracy. Dewey argues that in order to form better communities, democratic education is required to provide to students with participation in common activities and engagement in spontaneous communication. According to Freire dialogue is of primary importance in education. Teachers and students can jointly examine their understanding of the world through dialogues which will enable humanization and develop critical consciousness (Altenbaugh. n.d.). In another paper, “The Critical Role of Discourse in Education for Democracy” Walsh concentrates on education for democracy as one of the social practices within the social life. In this paper, the author claims that research on “education for democracy” has shown that voting has decreased in recent decades. In the body of research there are some educative practices that suggest the democratic participation among youth. This paper also focuses on the explanation of the function of hegemony in capitalist classes. Besides, the paper dwells on the obstacles existing in the current schooling practices and suggests solution also to overcome those problems. Marxian concept was used to explain how the dominating behavior of the ruling class reflected in controlling the mental production to facilitate ideological representation and hegemony (Walsh, n.d.) American scholar and analyst Chomsky in his book, ‘Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance’ explains the background and future implications of the American cultural hegemonic thoughts and representations. According to him ‘literature can heighten your imagination and insight understanding, it surely does not provide the evidence that you need to draw conclusions substantiate conclusions.” His argument is that politics can provide us with better case studies than literature. (Chomsky 2003). Collins, in his scholarly paper, “Barriers to Communication in Schools,” presents the major communication barriers in classrooms. According to the author, a very essential medium of instruction and assessment in schools is ‘talk’. Teachers respond to and assess the students on the basis of what they discern from their conversation. In order to be successful and gain optimum benefits out of the learning mechanism, students are required to be active participants in classroom conversations. However, it transpires that group discussions in classes are often dominated by a few gangs of confident children that are not necessarily articulate students. This reveals the fact that psychological needs of students, who remain quiet, often remain undetected. Thus, the hegemony is reinforced here with the barriers to communication (Collins. 1997). 3. Research Focus: From a brief review of literature by different eminent scholars considered for the purpose this research, the notion of cultural hegemony can be understood in its right perspective. The scholars have concentrated their areas of study with various dimensions of cultural hegemony in different elementary and secondary schools. As per the research questions to be addressed in this study, the major highlight will be on some selected case studies, where cultural hegemony has been predominant with respect to schools in America. Evidence obtained through interviewing a sample population of three teachers and seven parents also underpins the prevalence of cultural hegemony in schools. All the three teachers confirmed that they instill American values in students through American symbols such as the national flag. Though they also stated that students are being acquainted with other cultures, one cannot discount the fact that American culture receives dominance. On the other hand, parents of most of the children expressed a concern that their children may bring home the American culture, most of which depart significantly from their own culture. 4. Methodology This research paper will deploy different methods used to explore the topic and eventually draw on the findings of the results gathered from the techniques used. Both primary and secondary research method will be adopted as tools for identifying and explicating the predominance of cultural hegemony in American secondary schools. Primary data has been collected through interviewing a sample population of three school teachers and seven parents, from different cultural backgrounds. They were asked questions that are designed in such a manner as to elicit relevant information regarding the exchange of culture in school and to establish the prevalence of cultural hegemony. 4.1 Secondary Research: In order to illustrate the predominance of cultural hegemony in the elementary schools of America, appropriate secondary methods have been adopted. Different arenas have been identified, where the influence of cultural hegemony prevails. The areas which are identified for the research purpose are the issues of racial discrimination and class distinction faced by the African American students in secondary schools and the pattern of linguistic hegemony in elementary schools of America. Apart from this, the study also attempts to bring to time light the cases of gender equity, homosexuality and social discrimination of the African American students in American schools. For establishing the case of racial discrimination in elementary schools of America, Radnus elementary school has been chosen for investigation. In the beginning of 2001-2002, 82% of the students were found to be reading below grade level. Only 22% of the seventh grade students and 21% of the eight-grade students were reading at or above grade level. Again, the majority of the teachers were on probation and it was a school that registered the poorest in the district. So, in this case, the focus will be on analyzing the reasons for such poor performance. ( Alvermann.2006,p.67). Another particular aspect, which this study will focus on, is the topic of linguistic hegemony in elementary schools of America. The concern of relative language status has been a major problem in America. In the sphere of education, the prime focus has been on English and Spanish languages thus leading to the predominance of linguistic hegemony. Further discussions will be elaborated in the findings section. Apart from this, a sharp contrast of cultural hegemony in secondary schools of America will be provided in order to offer a glimpse of cultural hegemony on a broader angle. For this purpose, a case of gender equity will also be given emphasis for the request of the twin sisters Amy and Jessy Pasternak, for playing in the boy’s hockey team in Manitoba High school in Canada (Beaubier.et al., 2011). Another case for homosexuality will be discussed with respect to Alberta High School (Alderson. et al., 2009, p.87). Racial discrimination in the form of ‘Acting White’ in the school of Danvill area of Virginia will also be mentioned in order to show the intimation of cultural hegemony. (Clark, n.d., p. 2). 5. Findings: 5.1 Radnus Elementary School and Cultural Hegemony: The concept of identity development forms a crucial part in the life of every individual right from childhood onwards. It can be perceived as ‘a pattern of social assertion that significant others recognize and come to expect.’ (Alvermann 2006, p. 68). The teachers in the school play an important role in the formation and development of identity in children. For the purpose of developing literacy, teachers while teaching students of different ethnic background often ignore them and follow their own predefined curriculum. For example, in the explanation of gay, it can be found that, ‘If educators continue to be ignorant or ignore, impugn, and silence the cultural orientations, values, and performance styles of ethnically different students, it will translate into the imposition of “cultural hegemony, personal denigration, educational inequity, and academic underachievement upon them” (Alvermann.2006, p. 68). Radnus Elementary School is an urban K-S elementary school in the US. A major portion of the students in this school are of African American origin. The school suffers from a pattern of low achievement both in reading and mathematics. By 1996, the percentage of students reading at or above national norms was 13%. Radnus was one of the lowest performing elementary schools in its large urban school district. Due to the deteriorating academic standards, the District Office of Accountability stamped them with a probationary status. Being uncertain of the future the teachers and staff from administration were really worried about their future. As a quick solution to the problem, they started designing the courses in such a way that pupils could earn good numbers rather, than learning morally. The course of study included read-alouds, word study and vocabulary development, guided reading practices, independent reading and writing. Although the framework of literacy was based on a research based alignment, there were several loopholes within the system. The teachers did not lay emphasis on the efficacy of instructional strategies, which would be able to solve the dilemmas within the teachers and students and thus leading to the failure of the school (Alvermann.2006, p.69). Another shocking fact is that the lives of many people depended on the racial identities and upon their ethnic orientation. The community of Radnus High School was mainly of low income people and of inner city inhabitation. The students were mainly of African American origin. The teachers focused primarily on the instructional approaches. In order to save their jobs they focused rigidly on instructional approaches rather than providing their students’ adequate moral education. This led to the ignorance of the identity of the students. The families of the children provided them the impression that schooling was the pathway to their promises in the future in terms of career and well being. However, the students perceived a different experience from school. Concentrating only on instructional approaches by the students let them with the feeling of inferiority and generating in the context of status bias. Although the students are required to know about Martin Luther King and the seven principles of Kwanza, they were devoid of an authentic form of cultural teaching practice, because the system was instructional. A cultural pedagogy is a pedagogy which will influence and encourage the students to read in between the lines and beyond the pages. According to several students of the school, ‘it is less about what’s on the lines and pages than what is beyond the pages.’ (Alvermann.2006, p.72). The children in the school were only able to learn about cultural artifacts and historical facts about the African American society. On the other hand it was necessary to infuse within the students a sense that their ethnicity was unique. It was also needed to emphasize that being black allowed them to gain the opportunity to interact with the other cultural groups in the society. But these things were not done with right spirit. The students needed to be exposed to a wider paradigm of moral education and the feeling should be instilled within them that they receive equal education like children of any other group. In this case, the lack of moral education can be found, which led to the cultural hegemony from the evidence examined during the process of the research, it transpires that The teachers in this case have not been able to spread moral education (Alvermann.2006,p.72). All the three teachers, who were interviewed during the process of the research, had confirmed that children from different cultural, regional, racial and religious backgrounds are studying their classes. They also categorically stated that American nationalism and culture are transmitted to students in the class. They further confirmed that students were also encouraged to exchange their cultural values and symbols to others. For example, Ms. Gail claims that “we kind of discuss what they know about their cultures” (Gail). Thus, it transpires that schools are the venue for learning about different cultures and incorporating their values in the students’ personality. Parents like Mrs. Laila, who believe that the students “seem to incorporate all different cultures,” also confirm this view (Laila). However, most parents who hail from Muslim culture are a bit more apprehensive of the negative influences of the predominant culture to the extent of its potential to erode their own culture. For example, Mr. Hakeem believes that all cultures have some negative aspects and feels that his child “will learn negative things” that is a characteristic of the past in American culture (Hakeem). Therefore, from the evidence elicited through this research, it can be discerned that though cultural exchanges do take place in schools, American culture dominates the others. 5.2 Linguistic Hegemony in American Elementary Schools Social power relation between majority and minority language groups has been the essence of linguistic hegemony. Evidence also suggest that linguistic hegemony develops when, ‘linguistic minorities will believe in and participate in the subjugation of the minority language to the dominant, to the point where just the dominant language remains’(Suarez, 2002.p512). Linguistic hegemony in the elementary schools of America can be perceived as existing in the form of domination of English and Spanish language over others. The United States is a linguistically and culturally diverse nation. More 150 languages are spoken in the country today. From this one can easily decipher that in the nation’s public schools, the number of speakers of language other than English is growing. In the initial stages, this pattern began at a very slow pace. In 1980s, the number of students in the elementary schools from non-English speaking background was one in ten students. By the early 1990s, the number shot up to one in seven. During the 1999– 2000 school year, the total reported number of limited English proficient (LEP) students was approximately 4.4 million, comprising 9.3% of the total Kindergarten – Grade 12 (K – 12) public school enrolment. Reliable statistics, available on the topic, indicates that there was an increase of 27.3% from the previous school year (NCELA, 2002). The principal concentration of the enrolment of the nation’s LEP was in the elementary school grades. Additionally, one third of the students in the US public schools are of language minority. Thus it can be seen that there is a large increase in the diversity of the languages spoken in elementary schools of America. This trend can be attributed to reasons like immigration, birth patterns and language maintenance effort (Suarez 2002, pp. 512-514). The medium of teaching in American schools, naturally, is English. From the deposition of the sample population it stands established that a lot of students from other language backgrounds are studying in American schools. However, very few schools take any steps to include other languages in the curriculum except for major languages like Spanish. Mrs. Laila, a parent who was interviewed during this research, states that her eldest daughter was “especially struggling in 7th grade” (Laila). This problem, though specifically not attributed to any reason, seems to stem from linguistic issues as she later on stated when homeschooling was done, her daughter had produced better outcomes. Dominance of a single language in the curriculum will favor native speakers of that language, in comparison to those who study it as a second language. This is the main reason for linguistic hegemony in the American schools. 5.3 Cultural Hegemony in the American Secondary Schools in Contrast with the Elementary Schools: It has been found that Canadian public schools have, in several instances, neglected gender equity due to the absence of appropriate policies. As a negative result gender inequity became a dominant feature in public schools in several aspects like academics as well as in school athletics. In 2004 twin sisters Amy and Jesse Pasternak in Manitoba High School requested to play in the boy’s hockey team, but their requests were turned down by Manitoba High School Athletic Association (MHSAA) (Beaubier et al. 2011).The twin sisters attended West Kildonan Collegiate Institute (WKCI) in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. They were highly talented and imaginative hockey players and they played in the Winipig Minor Hockey Association in the boy’s team. In September 2004, when they were entering grade 10, they decided to join the boy’s hockey team where there was the probability of full body contact. Although supported by their managers they were not allowed to play in the boys’ hockey team by MHSAA. They ruled that girls were not eligible for playing and no specific reason was given for their exclusion. Whether the MHSAA admitted it or not, the fact remained that both the girls fell victim to gender bias in a sphere dominated by males. Homosexuals have been considered as minorities and has been subjected to suicides, self abusive behavior and have been very often have been victims of bullying and violence. Although laws did exist against such autrocities, still this phenomenon remained in many secondary schools in America. The counselors present in those schools should be responsible for tackling this issue. Studies indicate that ‘homonegativity’ or negative approach towards homosexuality was prevalent in Alberta High School. It can be attributed to the Alberta’s reluctance to provide equal rights to gay and lesbian students. A survey conducted among counselors revealed that the lack of knowledge was the root cause of the homonegative approach. Those who had knowledge about them showed a positive attitude (Alderson. etal, 2009, p.87). “Acting White” is a concept used by the scholars to describe the atrocities meted out to black students, which by the majority white students bestowed up on them. This is especially so in the schools of America. In Danvill area of Virginia a dual system of education was followed among the black and white people. The focus was given on two schools of Danhill that is the George Washington High School and Langston High School. Both the schools were rich in their heritage although George Washington School was mainly meant for the whites and Langston high school for the blacks. Although after 1965 this scenario changed after 1965, and unification in the education system slowly evolved. The black students admitted to the George Washington School faced serious racial discrimination (Slade, n.d.). Some of the parents, who were interviewed, felt that public schooling was a less preferable choice than private schools or homeschooling as student performance outcomes in the latter case were better. Conclusion: The paper has focused on the notion of the cultural hegemony which infused the process of creation of the dominant cultural norms as imposed by the majority of a certain faction over the minority. Their prime agenda is to create a social environment which will be influenced by norms and regulations they would dictate. The brief literature review starts with Emilie Durkheim’s moral education which emphasizes that moral education is absolutely necessary for the collective interest of the society. Then the aspect of cultural hegemony is described by different scholars by ascribing parameters like dropout rates, role of education for democracy and ‘talk’ represented as the barriers to the exercising of control. The paper then focuses on cultural hegemony in elementary schools of America. It finds that lack of moral education in Radnus elementary school led to the predominance of cultural hegemony. Study has further focused is on the linguistic hegemony, which is seen to be diminishing with time. Then a comparison with the secondary schools has been made. In these cases it has come to fore that cultural hegemony in the form of male chauvinism, homonegativity and racial discrimination existed in schools. All the evidence gleaned from the research indicates that cultural hegemony becomes a dominant feature in schools due to lack of moral education. The teachers in the educational institutes should take the responsibility of injecting moral education into the society, which is well justified with Durkheims theory. References Alderson, K.G., Orzeck, T. L.; McEwen, S. C. (2009), Alberta High School Counsellors’ Knowledge of Homosexuality and Their Attitudes Toward Gay Males, Canadian Journal of Education, 32(1), pp. 87-117 Alvermann.D.E.(2006), Reconceptualizing the literacies in adolescent's lives: Routledge Devine, n.d., what is Moral Education? retrieved on April 9 from http://www.libr.org/isc/issues/ISC23/B8%20Susan%20Devine.pdf Beaubier, D.M. Gadbois, S.A. and S.L. Stick, (2011), THE PASTERNAK CASE AND AMERICAN GENDER EQUITY POLICY: IMPLICATIONS FOR CANADIAN HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 120, pp. 1-37, retrieved on April 7, 2012 from: http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ923620.pdf Bishop, J.H. Matthew, M. & M. Michael (2003). "Peer Harassment: A Weapon in the Struggle for Popularity and Normative Hegemony in American Secondary Schools.” CAHRS Working Paper Series, Paper 38. Cornell University, retrieved on April 7, 2012 from: http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1037&context=cahrswp Clark, L.M. (n.d.), A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE EDUCATION OF AFRICAN AMERICANS IN DANVILLE, VIRGINIA: FROM DAN’S HILL TO LANGSTON HIGH SCHOOL, retrieved on April 8, 2012 from: http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/cslk/danville/media/pdfs/brief_history.pdf Chomsky, N. (2003). Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Collins, J (1997). Barriers to Communication in Schools, New York: University of York Durkheim, E. (1961). Moral education, New York, NY: The Free Press. Gedge, JL (1991). The Hegemonic Curriculum and School Dropout: The Newfoundland Case. Journal of Education Policy, 6(2), pp. 215-24, retrieved on April 7, 2012 from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0268093910060209#preview Slade, J.A. (n.d.), Chapter Four: Results, retrieved on April 8, 2012 from: http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-04042002-203119/unrestricted/4.pdf Suarez. D. (2002) The Paradox of Linguistic Hegemony and the Maintenance of Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States, retrieved on April 9 from: http://www.u.arizona.edu/~rgolden/Hegemony.pdf Walsh, J. (n.d.) The Critical Role of Discourse in Education for Democracy. Journal For Critical Education Policy Studies 6(2), retrieved on April 7, 2012 from: http://www.jceps.com/PDFs/6-2-04.pdf Read More