Figurational and Feminist Perspective on Alcohol Culture - Essay Example

Running head: FIGURATIONAL AND FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ON ALCOHOL CULTURE Figurational and Feminist Perspective on Alcohol Culture [The primary author(s) of this paper] [The College which grants your degree] Figurational and Feminist Perspective on Alcohol Culture There are many reasons why sociologists turn to theories to help explain different aspects of a particular culture. Norbert Elias said "A theory gives a man at the foot of a mountain a bird's eye view of routes and relationships that he cannot see for himself." (1978, p. 160) With this analogy he attempts to explain that theories on social events can help a person to maybe better understand what is going on in context with the rest of society. For example, when one is trying to understand the use of alcohol in male dominated sports such as football and rugby, then the use of theories can help to interpret what would otherwise be missed. In the same notion, there are many different theories that can lead to different interpretations of the same events. Two of these are the theory that Elias developed called figurational theory and then there are the feminist theories, both liberal and separatist. All three of these theories can bring insight to the use of alcohol in the sports but each one also takes a different view of many aspects of the culture including how alcohol is used, why it is used, what meaning is can be derived from the usage in the context, and how it can affect different classes in the culture such as the differences between male and female roles. When one takes into account the use of theories, then one can see the whole picture better, such as a bird can, than just one small piece, such as the man at the bottom of the mountain. Elias's main contribution to sports sociology is his figurational theory. His Western Europe theory was a historical based theory, which focused on the idea that people are interdependent and not independent. He believed that these people created networks that he called "figurations". In order to understand the people, the researcher has to be able to understand these figurations. These figurations are the way in which people interact and help each other. Elias's theory is based on the idea that people are social beings and therefore there are always going to be figurations. Figurational theory avoids focusing on structural agencies and dichotomies instead it tries to focus on the personal aspect of the cultures. (Germov, 2004, p. 1) Elias describes this theory as sort of a map. (1978, p. 160) In order to understand where someone is at the moment, then one needs to look back from when they came. The problem is that only after someone has gotten to where they are can they see what path they took. Within the map metaphor, Elias's makes certain that there are many paths that can lead from and to the same place. (Elias, 1978, p. 160) He does believe that each individual figuration cannot exist without the figuration that preceded it. People's individual actions may create figurations and outcomes that were not originally planned. "In a figurational approach, societies are built up from many interwoven chains of individual whose behaviour may or may not be normalized." (Jackson, 2003, p. 6) Elias also makes it clear that "One of the main differences of developmental sociology is that models are needed to represent figurations in constant flux, with neither beginning nor end. Traditionally, the concept of causality has always implied the search for an absolute beginning -- a 'first cause', in fact. So it cannot be expected that the type of explanation needed for research in developmental sociology will be just like explanations which conform to the pattern of traditional models of causality. Instead, changes in figurations are to be explained by other prior changes, and movement by movement, not by a 'first cause' which, so to speak, set everything in motion, and which itself is unmoved. (Elias, 1978, p. 162) There were many historical and social processes at work as the development of these sports occurred. According to figurational theory, male dominated sports came about as a socially acceptable way to deal with aggression. The societies in which these sports, such as rugby and football are played took very different "figurations" than other societies. These societies tended to lean towards becoming civilized; therefore there eventually was no longer a place for the violence that takes place in other societies. As male oriented aggression was still looked on as a positive thing, many societal pressures developed these violent games in order to let the players and the observers play out their violent tendencies. These places became a certain "figuration" that has left women mostly out. The use of alcohol within this figuration can be explained by the fact that it leads to the bonding of the social beings that exist in these particular sports. Another look at this theory was presented by Crawford, in his book, Consuming Sport: Fans, Sport, and Culture. (Crawford, 2004, p. 92) He brings up the point that figurational theory is linked though many different social networks throughout time. Elias believed that "Western societies since the Middle Ages have been undergoing a process of 'civilization'-which has seen changing social norms and regulations, particularly in relation to the increased privatization of the body and an increasing intolerance towards acts of violence." (Crawford, 2004, p. 92)Therefore," The occurrence of violence at contemporary football is then explained as a 'decivilizing spurt', or a throw back to a less civilized era, and is most frequently conducted by the lower working classes 1 who trail behind at the rear of this civilizing process." (Crawford, 2004, p. 92) There is a warning that the research is mostly focus on what is the violent nature of these sports and that the "other aspects of the development of sport such as the formal organization and standardization of sport, its diffusion in national societies and throughout the world and professionalization and commercialization" (Dunning, Malcolm & Waddington, 2004, p. 204)Elias does give us a "central aspect of which is concerned with the ways in which power relationships and the habitus of individuals are shaped by the unplanned outcome of long-term state formation processes. But that an imaginative and creative engagement opens up possibilities for understanding many other aspects of the development of sport." (Dunning, Malcolm & Waddington, 2004, pp. 134-135)This being said, it does gives us some understanding into the alcohol culture of these sports. Alcohol and violence have long been linked together in the male dominated spheres and therefore, the social context which evolved around these sports, let the use of alcohol be not only accepted but almost promoted. Within figurational theory, "people will normally feel involved in their social relationships and willing to sustain them: this will give figurational duality, a close and harmonious interdependence of agents and figurations." (Jackson, 2003, p. 8) Alcohol may also be related to what is called "hooliganism" or spectator violence. (Dunning, Murphy & Williams, 1990) Spectator violence in the sport of football is increasing in the world and alcohol contributes to it. Most of the spectators of these sports are male. Alcohol is involved in "intra-fan-group fighting." (Dunning, Murphy & Williams, 1990, p. 61) Yet, the because of the differences in the figurations of different groups of people that watch and play football, it was also found that "although a positive relationship between drug and alcohol use and hooliganism was found among a sample of Dutch fans, there were few signs in West Germany of excess alcohol consumption producing violent disorder among roligans or between Danish fans and rival supporters." (Dunning, Murphy & Williams, 1990, p. 182) This demonstrates that events can lead to more than one outcome and figuration. Both the West Germans and the Dutch had similar histories when it came to football, yet the incidents of hooliganism are different. Crawford adds, "that 'hooliganism' does not refer to any specific criminal offence, and is merely a concept applied by academics, the mass media and general public to various forms of aggressive and violent behaviour that takes place out of context. The concept of 'violence' itself is a social construct, and means little more than a physical confrontation, taking place in the 'wrong place between the wrong people'." (Crawford, 2004, p. 2) There are some problems with this theory. Many believe that this theory oversimplifies problems and the links among these individuals are open to varied interpretation. (Jackson, 2003, p. 6) This structure is also supposed to be dominated by behaviour and since all behaviour is unpredictable, trying to predict what will happen within a particular group, such as what would happen a particular night when some people where drinking, becomes nearly impossible. Figurational sociology also "overstates the person side of social structure and minimizes the impersonal character of roles." (Jackson, 2003, p. 6) It is argued that within figurational theory that "the outcome of such sports histories has been the frequent inability to reveal, much less analyse, the degree to which structural social cleavages (found on class, gender, race, ethnicity, age, and so on) have substantially shaped the development of sports, and how sport as a social institution has been heavily implicated in the reproduction of such conflicts and inequalities." (Rowe & Lawrence, 1996, p. 5) Therefore, though figurational theorists believe that alcohol use in male dominated sports is the direct result of the way in which the civilizing of the Western countries have suppressed violence into sports, it does not explain the role that it plays with women. There are two feminist theories that try to explain the role in which women play in the male dominated sports such as rugby and football. These theories also can be used to explain the use of alcohol within these realms and how it affects the women in these roles. Both feminist theories criticize sports as gendered. This is based on the idea that females throughout the history of these sports have been systematically devalued and oppressed. Modern sports, such as rugby and football are associated with teaching manly values such as aggression and the violence that goes with that. The alcohol culture fits neatly in with these teachings. According to these feminist theories, the teachings of violence, physical domination, and stamina suggest that men are more powerful than women. Women who attempt to enter this ream are often ridiculed, harassed, and otherwise treated badly by the dominating men because of these ideas. Adding alcohol to the views and values of this subculture, also adds to the degradation of the women who are associated in anyway with these sports. Women who are spectators in these sports are also treated unequally. Of the two schools, both believe that in order to change these ideas that the sports themselves need to change. In order to understand the feminist perspective, one must understand that this is a rather new concept. Feminism has been around for a long time but had until recently focused on politics and the legal system. It is only after getting equal rights on these important fronts have women had the ability to challenge some of these ideas on the leisure and sport fronts. (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 25) One way in which feminism has impacted sports sociology is in "uncovering ways in which men's power over women in sports has been institutionalized." (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 25) "Feminist writers consistently proposed that women's liberation from the exclusively feminine must be linked to men's liberation from the exclusively masculine, but there has been much to indicate that this twin liberation is not occurring." (Goldstein, 1989, p. 134) Liberal feminism believes that there are discrimination and unequal opportunities for women. "Liberal feminism is defined as 'an attempt to remove or compensate for the ascriptive and social impediments that prevent women from competing on equal terms with men, without otherwise challenging the hierarchical structures within which both sexes operate." (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 28) Liberal feminism believes that by implementing legal and social reform that there will be equality of the sexes. (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 28) Liberal feminism focuses on the institutions and associations of the sports. Therefore, they believe that there should be separate but equal clubs and organizations. Alcohol plays a role in this because though women tend to be able to drink, women are less likely to make alcohol a constant part of their culture even within the same games are their male counterparts if they are separate. (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 28) Many issues arise because of the idea that some of these sports, such as football and rugby, as too physical and that the biological differences in women make these sports too damaging to women. Feminist "rejects biological explanations for non-participation and embraces the belief that if women are given the opportunity they can participate in the full range of sports that men enjoy (Dyer 1982; Ferris 1981). These implications are important because the most consistent justification for opposition to women's equality with men has been articulated in terms of the supposed limitations inherent in female biology. The assumption underpinning liberal intervention is that culture and not nature is the reason why so few women have been involved in sports, and that any barriers that still prevent women from participating can be removed by rational intervention." (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 28) Radical feminism or separatist believe that not only should women be fighting for equal opportunities in these sports but also there needs to be a change in the whole male-oriented system. They believe that they need not only to be equal and accepted on every level as a man but also believe that women should have been separate in the sports. This is based on the fact that "women who have experienced harsh discrimination by men on account of their sex often become vehemently opposed to men in these settings." (Hargreaves, 1994, p. 30) Separatist feminist do not want men to have any control over anything in the sport or their lives. These are the women for who the alcohol culture may permeate but not with the danger that comes with having intoxicated men around. These women are violently opposed to the laddism. Laddism is "a male culture which may be seen as a reaction to the idea of the caring, sensitive 'new man' produced by the feminist movement. So laddism is characterised by a climate of rough behaviour, excessive drinking ('lager louts') and all-male attendance at soccer matches." (Storry & Childs, 2002, p. 295) "The reason for this difference in men's and women's perceptions of sports could be a result of several factors, such as greater familiarity with gender-appropriate sports, identification with the participants, and the presentation of oneself as a gendered individual distinct from the other gender." (Koivula, 2001, p. 7) This brings about one criticism that the feminist theories and perspective have and that it that it is gender bias itself. Feminist do not look at other factors that may contribute to the issues that they encounter. They base most of their ideas and come to the conclusions based only on the gender issues that they have in mind. As has been discussed, both theories have their problems. I believe that both theories have some validity when it comes to interpreting the alcohol culture of male dominated sports. Both the feminist theories and figurational theory give a researcher a greater area to look at in terms of social impacts that they might have missed before. These theories can help someone to think outside of the box that they are used to thinking in. I believe that the greatest thing about figurational theory is that it shows you how many possibilities that there are for the future. It shows explains that alcohol probably had social significance to the people in the rugby and football cultures. This helped the people in these cultures to bond in ways that would have probably not been possible before. Figurational theory looks at the past to explain what is going on right now. One of the major problems with it is that there are a million interpretations for what has happened and how that has an affect on the culture of today. It also assumes that through though these networks are made that there are too many deciding factors that can be taken into account. Figurational theory may believe that alcohol was part of the culture because of the avoidance of violence and other negative (alcohol) factors in other subcultures of someone's life but it doesn't necessarily explain how it became so prevalent or how come the alcohol culture is different depending on which culture it is found in. Likewise, feminism lacks in explaining what the significance of the alcohol is for the rugby and football except that it is male bonding oriented and therefore it is antifeminist. What both there theories have in common is that there is some truth to what each has said. It is up to the interpreter to analyze the situations. I believe that more than one theory should be explored when looking into any culture or subculture. While there are plenty of factors that lead to the presence of alcohol as part of the male dominated sports culture, any one theory would not exposed all the factors. When taking into account a culture the context in which the alcohol is used should also be used. Even within the rugby and football culture themselves, there are many different aspects that can be explored. The interactions between alcohol and the team are different between alcohol and the fans. The team members may use alcohol as a way to celebrate after a victory or commiserate after a defeat. The fans are usually drinking it as part of the whole experience of watching the game. Other issues that need to be taken into account are how alcohol is used throughout the rest of the society in which the team finds itself. If the team is a member of a nation in which drinking is excess is permissible, then the team and the spectators may indulge more than a team and spectators from a nation which frowns on overindulging in too much to drink. The opposite may also hold true, if a team and spectators are in from a more conservative country but are visiting a less restrictive one, then they may overindulge because the societal pressure to not do it may be removed. The effects and the results of the alcohol is also a class issue as much as a gender issue. Someone who can afford to watch the games and buy a lot of alcohol will be more likely to be able to drink. Sometimes, the type of alcohol consumed is also a class difference. I believe that women as well as men have the same inhibitions but each are governed by the different roles that each plays in their society as a whole. These are just a couple of examples which both the figurational theory and the feminist theories are lacking. Something else that is not taken into account is what affect alcohol has on the cultures in other sports. Some sports, such as gymnastics and ice skating probably do not have a huge alcohol culture but other sports should be explored. Women's sports also should be looked at specifically when taking into account how alcohol affects the male dominated sports. What are affects on the female dominated sports or even the male dominated sports that have female leagues. References Crawford, G. (2004). Consuming sport: fans, sport, and culture (p.92-93). New York: Routledge. Dunning, E., Malcolm, D., & Waddington, I. (2004). Sport Histories: Figurational Studies in the Development of Modern Sport (pp. 134-135, 204). Routledge. Dunning, E., Murphy, P., & Williams, J. (1990). Football on Trial: Spectator Violence and Development in the Football World (p. 61, 182). London: Routledge. Elias, N. (1978). What is sociology (p. 160, 162). London: Hutchinson Germov, J. (2004). On the Everyday Life of a Significant Sociologist: The Life-Work of Stephen Crook. ; Journal of Sociology, 40, 1. Goldstein, J. H. (1989). Sports, Games, and Play: Social and Psychological Viewpoints (p. 134). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hargreaves, J. (1994). Sporting females: critical issues in the history and sociology of women's sports (p. 25, 28, 30). New York: Routledge. Jackson, W. A. (2003). Social Structure in Economic Theory. Journal of Economic Issues, 37, 6-8. Koivula, N. (2001). Perceived Characteristics of Sports Categorized as Gender-Neutral, Feminine and Masculine. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24, 7. Rowe, D., & Lawrence, G. (1996). Beyond National Sport. Sporting Traditions, 12 (2), 5. Storry, M., & Childs, P. (2002). British cultural identities (2nd ed., p. 295). New York: Routledge. Read More