Physiologicl Indices of Sports Performnce - Literature review Example

Psychologicl Fctors nd Sport Performnce of the School] of the Executive Summry The purpose of this review is to define physiologicl indices of sports performnce, exmine psychologicl fctors involved with sports, nd suggest corrective lterntives for coches to void sports performnce filures. The body of literture which ddresses sports performnce is primrily been physiologicl. Fctors involved with sports performnce re prsympthetic nd sympthetic system chnges. Sports performnce cn be improved by providing cler system of rewrds nd scheduling, constnt ttention to relistic trining schedules, implementing psychologicl testing, nd monitoring dietry intke cn llevite the potentil for stleness nd burnout. This paper includes discussion of two articles on the effect of psychological factors on the performance of sportsmen. Additionally, it includes author's recommendations as to how to deal with these paychological factors. Introduction Psychologicl fctors ssocited with sport performnce can influence the sportsmen in a positive and negative way. Some positive factors that significantly enhance the performance of athlets are for examplesegmenting, task-relevant thought content, positive self-talk, and mood words (Rushall, Some Psychological Factors for Promoting Exceptional Athletic Performance). The most common negative factor that influences sports performance is anxiety. Anxiety is a body's automatic response that prepares it to 'fight' or 'flee' from perceived harm or attack that ensures survival of the human species. Sporting competition is an event that creates the feeling of anxiety. Basically, when the demands of training or competition exceed one's perceived ability, anxiety is the inevitable outcome. I will review all of those factors and propose my resonce as a coach to the psychological factors that influence the sport peroformance. Anxiety norml fcet of dily life, stress is defined s n synchrony between chnge within n individul nd chnge within the environment. This synchrony is concretely pprent in sport s performnce is the externl reflection of blnce between the individul nd the environment. Excessive stress my be detrimentl to performnce culminting in greter psychologicl strin on the thlete. In overtrining reserch, stress is primrily viewed s summtion of severl fctors including life stress, mount of socil support, decrese of coping skills, locus of control, nd emotionl expression. The stress-injury link to negtive life stress hs been investigted nd helps provide coches with new direction to explin why some thletes, my be more vulnerble to injury t different times of the seson (Smith, Smoll, & Ptcek, 1990). Negtive life stress hs ccounted for s much s 30% of the observed injury vrince when ssessing injury vulnerbility (Smith, Smoll, & Ptcek, 1990). The subsequent stress following n injury or performnce decline does not fcilitte regenertion, further contributing to the overtrining syndrome. Excessive life stress is ssocited with n incresed vulnerbility to injury for two possible resons. First, ttentionl disruption my occur cusing less vigilnce to environmentl cues. Secondly, incresed muscle tension my effect fluidity of movement resulting in predisposition to injury (Smith, Smoll & Ptcek, 1990). Socil support nd coping skills my lso effect how thletic stress is reconciled nd hs been investigted through the stress-injury model (Smith, Smoll & Ptcek, 1990). Lck of pproprite socil support nd coping skills hs led to stleness nd eventul burnout (Smith, Smoll & Ptcek, 1990). Exmples include the underdeveloped coping skills of some children who prticipte in sports, nd the potentil for liention to occur t elite levels of competition due to trvel nd prctice time wy from friends. Severity of injury hs not been determined using indices of socil support/coping skill lthough sttisticlly significnt correltion ws drwn when subjects who were low in both socil support nd coping skills were ssessed for injuries. Results suggested tht s high s 47 to 55 percent of thletes who score low in both re more likely to suffer injuries (Smith, Smoll & Ptcek, 1990). The perceived power/control n thlete hs over her/his sport performnce is known s the locus of control. Much of the lerned helplessness reserch would suggest tht perceived externl locus of control (coches, prents, or peers) would led to lck of internl motivtion in some individuls nd thus greter potentil for withdrwl or burnout (Donldson et l., 2006). Personlity chrcteristics represent n importnt psychologicl fctor in sports performnce becuse individul perceptions of stress vry gretly. n exmintion of these personlity chrcteristics revel tht elite performing thletes tend to hve incresed motivtion (Meyers, Sterling, Bourgeois, Tredwell, & LeUnes, 1994). Incresed determintion of thletes my increse the susceptibility to overtrining due to the greter potentil for ftigue nd subsequent performnce decline Depression is nother importnt personlity component tht is susceptible to sports performnce (Snders et l., 2000). Some potentil depression mechnisms in response to excessive trining my include excessive stress nd constnt negtive feedbck on performnce by coches. This in turn, lowers self-esteem nd fcilittes cyclicl downwrd spirl of self-efficcy. Depression hs been ssocited with chronic ftigue encountered with overtrining (Snders et l., 2000). Cognitive Processes Impired cognitive processes hve been reported in cses of psychologicl burn-out nd overtrining. Signs hve included difficulty concentrting t work nd trining, incresed internl nd externl distrctibility, decresed bility to del with lrge mounts of informtion, decresed bility to nrrow focus, nd decresed feelings of self-esteem (Fry et l., 1991). component of ftigue, s viewed by severl reserchers, is boredom. The txing demnds of physicl trining cuse subsequent decreses in blood glucose. s systemic glucose declines, brin function is slowed nd nervous rection is decresed potentilly explining the possible connection between psychologicl function nd physicl demnd (Gyton, Very, Herns, 1999) Further evidence suggests tht there my be seprtion between cognitive strtegies used by successful nd unsuccessful thletes s mesured by the Sports Inventory for Pin. The SIP scle ssesses n thletes potentil for coping with pin nd ssesses somtosptil components of competition. Subscles include coping, cognition, ctstrophizing, voidnce, nd body wreness. Two importnt vribles hve proven to be cognitive wreness (COG) nd body wreness (BOD) of the thletes (Meyers et l., 1992). In rodeo thletes, the need for cognitive strtegies while deling with the inevitble pin of getting bucked off of horse or the somtosensory wreness of where the body my be in reltion to the niml my lso be vitl link to understnding psychologicl skills necessry in vrious trditionl sports (Meyers et l., 1992). ppliction of the SIP to thletes involved in contct sports such s footbll nd wrestling would be interesting to further ssess the reltionship between cognitive pprisl nd subsequent overtrining (Gyton, Very, Herns, 1999). My advise as a coach for the sportsmen to improve their sports performance would be to integrate task-relevant content, positive self-statements, and mood words. It should be done in a meaningful dialogue by each athlete, and practiced, performed, and evaluated for effect and possible improvement. Their inclusion in training programs can be done through a "sporting homework" in a fashion that is not possible with other performance factors. The magnitudes of the performance enhancements reported in controlled research settings with high-level athletes makes the use of thought-content skills an imperative for athletes wishing to maximize their performance and for coaches seeking to optimize their effectiveness. ttention to physicl fctors is criticlly importnt too. Evidence indictes tht sports performnce is function of trining volume (Lehmnn, Foster, & Keul, 1993). Tpering of workouts to lessen psychologicl nd physiologicl stress hve been suggested to id in the supercompenstion process during overreching nd regenertion. If stleness is present, nd tpering fils to improve performnce, burnout, withdrwl, or injury my result. If burnout is evident, then complete versus fcilittive rest my be necessry. Rest nd regenertion time re essentil to the successful performnce of thletes nd should be seriously considered when working with ny sport popultion. The ctbolic nture of trining is evident when looking t cortisol levels. Ctbolism is the breking down process of mino cids in the muscle to fcilitte energy for trining. During stressful trining cortisol, which fcilittes ctbolism, is incresed; however with proper rest, cortisol concentrtions return to norml. When stress is imposed before cortisol hs time to return to resting levels greter degree of cortisol ctivity is observed. Mood chnges my lso be evident when rest time is not pproprite. Certinly other fctors could fcilitte mood ltertions; however, if reltively constnt stte of mood is estblished, then chnges my be suggestive of stleness. Once stleness occurs, trining should be tpered nd rest or regenertion time should be ssessed, psychologicl diversions should be provided, nd socil interction should be fcilitted. diverse psychologicl trining experience is essentil for lertness nd recupertion for sports. Otherwise stleness nd complcency my become rod blocks to pek performnce (Vele, 1991). Some suggestions for stress mngement techniques include relxtion trining, imgery, cognitive strtegies such s self-ffirmtions, nd emphsis on positive feedbck. Relistic estblishment of public nd personl gols could help vert stleness. Gols, however, must be mutully greeble to the thlete, coch, nd prents with regulr recognition nd updtes (LeUnes & Ntion, 1989). These techniques my require dditionl time but cn benefit thletic performnce significntly. Providing socil interction is n importnt component of why children ply sports. This llows for mentl regenertion. The monotony of stressful trining often induce symptoms of stleness; however, occsionl breks ese the strin (Silv, 1990). Typiclly, time llotments need to be estblished for socil interction during trining. In ddition, extrcurriculr socil interction with temmtes outside of prctice provides necessry medium for children to relx from the rigors of emotionlly nd physiclly txing sports. Screening for certin psychologicl chrcteristics by coches should enhnce the efficcy of youth sports progrm. n importnt considertion, however, is the time llotment for testing. Test dys cn be scheduled during extended periods of rest nd regenertion or before sesonl demnds increse. Furthermore, testing my provide feedbck for prents nd thletes concerning improvements, nd lso to reffirm hrd work. When choosing bttery of tests, coch must be relistic bout the usefulness of the informtion, time constrints of record collection, nd subsequent dt nlysis. Dietry considertions for thletes could effect sport performnce nd further hinder the psychologicl regenertion needed for dequte djustment to physicl overlod. Shermn nd Mglischo (1991) suggest tht crbohydrte intke should be monitored to void listless nd pthetic behvior. The coch should work in tndem with prents to understnd the dietry needs of individul thletes nd pproprite nutritionl demnds of the prticulr sport. Bibliogrphy: 1. nthony, J. . (1991). Psychologic spects of exercise. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 10, 171-180. 2. Donldson Srh J., Kevin R. Ronn (2006). The Effects of Sports Prticiption on Young dolescents' Emotionl Well-Being. 3. Fry, R. W., Morton, . R., & Kest, D. (1991). Overtrining in thletes: n updte. Sports Medicine, 12, 32-65. 4. Gyton Willim F., Michel Very , Joseph Herns (1999).Psychologicl Momentum in Tem Sports. 5. Green Elizbeth K., Kevin L. Burke , Chrles L. Nix , Keith W. Lmbrecht , Dvid C. Mson (1993). Psychologicl Fctors ssocited with lcohol Use by High School thletes. 6. Lehmnn, M., Foster, C., & Keul, J. (1993). Overtrining in endurnce thletes: brief review. Medicine nd Science in Sports nd Exercise, 25, 854-862. 7. LeUnes, . & Ntion, J. R. (1989). Sport psychology: n introduction (pp. 353-379). Chicgo, IL: NelsonHll. 8. Meyers, M. C., LeUnes, ., Elledge, J. R., Tolson, H., & Sterling, J. C. (1992). Injury incidence nd psychologicl mood stte ptterns in collegite rodeo thletes. Journl of Sport Behvior, 15, 297-306. 9. Meyers, M. C., Sterting, J. C., Bourgeois, . E., Tredwell, S., & Leunes, . (in press). Mood nd psychologicl skills of world-rnked femle tennis plyers. Journl of Sport Behvior. 10. Morgn, W. P., O'Connor, P. J., Sprling, P. B., & Pte, R. R. (1987). Psychologicl chrcteristics of elite femle runners. Interntionl Journl of Sport Medicine, 8, 124-131. 11. Rushll, B. S. (1990). tool for mesuring stress tolernce in elite thletes. Journl of pplied Sport Psychology, 2, 51-66. 12. Snders Christopher E., Tiffny M. Field , Miguel Diego , Michele Kpln (2000). Moderte involvement in sports is relted to lover depression levels mong dolescents. 13. Shermn, M. W. & Mglischo, E. W. (1991). Minimizing chronic thletic ftigue mong swimmers: Specil emphsis on nutrition. Sports Science Exchnge, 4, 1-5. 14. Silv, J. M. (1990). n nlysis of the trining stress syndrome in competitive thletes. Journl of pplied Sport Psychology, 2, 5-20. 15. Smith, . M., Scott, S. G., O'Fllon, W. M. & Young, M. L. (1990). Emotionl responses of thletes to injury. Myo Clinic Proceedings, 65, 38-50. 16. Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L. & Ptcek, J. T. (1990). Conjunctive modertor vribles in vulnerbility nd resiliency reserch: Life stress, socil support nd coping skills, nd dolescent sport injuries. Journl of Personlity nd Socil Psychology, 58, 360-370. 17. Vele, D. M. W. (1991). Psychologicl spects of stleness nd dependence on exercise. Interntionl Journl of Sports Medicine, 12, 19-22. rticles: Some Psychological Factors for Promoting Exceptional Athletic Performance by Brent S. Rushall - San Diego State University Source: http://www.psichi.org/pubs/articles/article_89.asp Distinguished Lectures/Special Topics Some psychological factors associated with performance enhancement in serious athletes are discussed. Those factors are delimited to what occurs during a competitive performance. Four mental skills: (a) segmenting, (b) task-relevant thought content, (c) positive self-talk, and (d) mood words are reviewed. Typical thinking developed through sport participation, a very common control condition, is not conducive to optimal or maximal performance. The implementations of these mental skills produce athletic performance enhancements, even in elite athletes. Any extra effort or physiological cost does not accompany improvements. It is proposed that the teaching of these and similar skills must become part of an athlete's experience if performance standards are to be improved further. Psychology is the study of behavior, it being both covert and overt. It is relatively easy to investigate overt behaviors accurately and reliably and to employ independent verification of phenomena, but when it comes to covert behaviors, such as thoughts and emotional interpretations, the ability to verify phenomena independently is usually thwarted. While it remains possible to manipulate external events and observe behavioral outcomes, functional relationships between environmental psychological factors and performances can be described. It is not scientifically appropriate to attribute outcomes to intermediary events such as thoughts and perceptions when they have not been directly observed. A position on that restriction has been described elsewhere (Rushall, 1992). While talk is of thoughts and covert activities, it is the external stimulating events that influence them which are really the causal factors in the research works discussed. Serious Competitive Settings A serious competitive setting is where the consequences of performance are most important and strongest for an athlete. Factors that affect an athlete's perception of this setting have been described in the Sport Pressure Checklist (Rushall & Sherman, 1987). Variations in these factors produce performance inconsistencies (Teed, 1987) as well as suggest patterns that predispose excellent performances (Rushall, 1987). In challenging and serious performance situations, it has been found that performance-oriented "strategies" (plans) of specific detail have notable effects on performance consistency and reliability (Coles, Herzberger, Sperber, & Goetz, 1975; Vestewig, 1978). The need for specific preparations is now commonly recognized in several fields (e.g., business, performing arts) and its founding research so convincing that it is now rarely investigated. However, it is still being neglected in the majority of sporting situations by coaches and sport psychologists. Further, when strategies are formulated primarily by athletes they generally produce the following benefits: (a) reduction in uncertainty and interpretive distractions and the stress of negative situations, (b) enhanced performance consistency, (c) improved coping capacity for problems, and (d) minimized performance deteriorations (Averill, 1973; Hollandsworth, Glazeski, & Dressel, 1978). Research reports of the value of performance strategies in sports have been published (e.g., wrestling, Horton & Shelton, 1978; basketball, Meyers & Schleser, 1980; skiing, Rotella, Gansneder, Ojala, & Billing, 1980; swimming, Rushall, 1978; rowing, Rushall, 1990). Factor 1: Performance Segmenting If an event is of long duration, it needs to be broken into segments. Partitions should be short enough for the athlete to totally concentrate on what needs to be thought of and done in that period. This assists focusing on the completion of successful competition elements. Structuring performances in this manner is called "segmenting." In the U.S. Navy, a similar approach to combat missions is known as "compartmentalizing" (e.g., TOP GUN). Segmenting originates from two sources. First, the goal-setting literature has shown that distant goals have less effect on performance than do more proximal goals (House, 1973). Short-term performance goals that focus on the processes needed for successful behavior enhance performance (Harackiewicz, Abrahams, & Wageman, 1987). Second, individuals faced with extensive tasks usually break them down into more manageable segments (Gibson & Heads, 1989, describing the across-Australia run by Tony Rafferty). Botterill (1977) noted successful young athletes spontaneously reconstructed an endurance strength-task into shorter performance segments, each having its own goal or goals. A skier overcame difficulties with traversing a slope when attention was shifted to progress by task parts that eventually lead to completion of the total run (Syer & Connolly, 1984). World-champion target sportspersons have reported attempting to fire "one shot at a time" during extended shooting contests (Wigger, Anderson, Whitaker, & Harmon, 1980). Performing artists have intuitively divided long performances into stages (e.g., acts and scenes, movements) so that performance quality can be maintained. Thus, theory and practice support the notion of segmenting extensive tasks for improved performance outcomes. Manges (1990) and Wahl (1991) both tested the segmented versus total performance goal-orientation in runners. Using intraparticipant research designs, the value of short-term process goals over terminal (distal) goals was conclusively demonstrated. Manges' three runners improved 2.0-2.7% while Wahl's ranged from 1.1-6.5% with one participant not improving (-0.9%). The performance differences could not be accounted for in terms of altered physiological functioning, a phenomenon noted long ago by Wilmore (1970). The way segments are structured and their content is particularly individual. Differences in segmenting strategies and moderating factors need to be determined to understand this factor more clearly. The anecdotal and goal-theory literature at present is inadequate for fully explaining this phenomenon. Factor 2: Task-Relevant Thought Content Performance efficiency is reduced by distraction and enhanced by relevant concentration. There are some minor exceptions to this principle (e.g., cognitive interference), but in tasks performed under stressful circumstances, the focus of attention has to be on the processes for completing the performance to achieve the highest level of outcome (Jones & Hardy, 1989). This is particularly true in sports. Cognitive concepts such as "attentional focus," "concentration," and "flow" are characterized by a singular task-orientation, although that orientation varies according to the stage and type of activity. "The focus on task-relevant information is intended to ensure that all resources available to an athlete in a competition are used fully and in the most efficient manner possible" (Rushall, 1995, p. 8.13). While task-relevant concentration might seem to be an obvious characteristic of performance control, it is surprising how few athletes develop it effectively through normal training experiences. Training seems to develop a form of habitual/practice thinking that does not transfer effective benefits to competitive settings. Intraparticipant alternating-treatments designs have been used to compare "normal/habitual" thinking with sport-specific task-relevant thinking that has been individualized to the participant. The experimental variable in this paradigm is confounded between individuality and task-specificity. Some studies have introduced other unrelated thinking conditions (e.g., Chorkawy, 1982; Ford, 1982; McKinnon, 1985) for further comparisons. Group designs (Crossman, 1977; Selkirk, 1980) do not demonstrate effects as well as single-participant experiments. Task-relevant thinking appears more consistent in influence the higher the standard of the athlete: Canadian elite rowers (N = 5) improved an average of 3.5% on an ergometer task (Rushall, 1984b). Canadian national team cross-country skiers improved an average of 1.96% over a training track lap (Rushall, Hall, Roux, Sasseville, & Rushall, 1988). Norwegian junior national team cross-country skiers improved an average of 2.5% using both skating and classical techniques over a training track lap (Kristiansen, 1992). A common feature of these studies was the opportunity for the athletes to individualize the content and nature of their thoughts after receiving instructions. That feature may be a very significant moderating variable. The normal/habitual thinking developed through training and coaching is far from optimal in its effect on performance. Even though coaches commonly claim to teach and stress "technique," it was only after instructions and practice to use self- and activity-specific detailed content that performances improved. Factor 3: Positive Self-Statements (Thinking) Positive thinking is the covert utterance of positive self-statements. Taylor's work (1979) showed that under a positive mental orientation, the body's physiology performs more efficiently than when under an aversive or negative mind-set (see also Schuele & Wisenfeld, 1983; Vera, Vila, & Godoy, 1994). Positive self-talk is also related to factors associated with improved performance, such as coping (Girodo & Roehl, 1978), self-concept (Smit, 1992), and self-efficacy (Weiss, Wiese, & Klint, 1989). Dalton, Maier, and Posavac (1977) reported the direct effect of negative thoughts on swimming performance. Among 24 junior tennis players during tournament matches it was found that negative self-talk was associated with losing, and players who used and reported believing in the utility of positive self-talk won more points than players who did not (Van Raalte, Brewer, Rivera, & Petitpas, 1994). Positive self-talk was an important part of a game strategy for improving basketball performance (Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990), for learning compulsory figures in ice-skating (Ming, 1993), and for increasing the number of games won from deuce-point in a tennis player (Desiderato & Miller, 1979). Intraparticipant investigations on the effect of positive self-talk on performance in a variety of settings produced results similar to those of task-relevant thinking: Canadian rowers improved from 1.21-2.20% on an evaluative ergometer task (Rushall, 1984b). A wide range of Norwegian cross-country skiers improved an average of 3.63% over a test distance (Holingen & Vikander, 1987). Superior Canadian age-group swimmers improved from 1.39-2.13% over two distances (Rushall & Shewchuk, 1989). An emphasis on positive self-talk while performing a task enhances performance. This further supports the inadequacy of habitual sport thinking for provoking an optimal training or competitive response. Self-talk is an individual skill that needs to be practiced before it is evaluated for influence. The general level of effect is marginally less than that of task-relevant thinking, but that is not surprising considering it usually does not entertain direct effects on skill economy. Rather, it sets the "atmosphere" for efficient physiological functioning which then has to be translated into efficient movement patterns. There are certain characteristics of positive self-talk which are recommended for use in practical situations (Rushall, 1995). Positive self-statements should not be trivial, cheerleader-type expressions (e.g., "go, go, go," "let's do it now"). Four appropriate uses in competitions are: (a) encouraging oneself, (b) handling effort, (c) evaluating segment goals, and (d) general positive self-talk to maintain atmosphere. It should be spread throughout a strategy. It could be most effective when second-person phrasing is used (e.g., "you," "your"), which produces a perception of control over oneself. The dynamics of positive self-talk in sport settings need to be delineated further. Factor 4: Mood Words Another form of covert vocabulary involves particular words that emote or energize the individual. Language has basic words which, when said or thought with appropriate feeling and emphasis, have some movement or emotional outcome. They cause a physical reaction in the body. Some languages/cultures use these words more frequently (e.g., Italian, Arabic) than others (e.g., English). Performing artists frequently use simple words emoted in a particular way to promote a behavior that expresses a mood. Mood words require no translation. The expressive thinking of words should produce a feeling appropriate for some performance capacity. If a feeling does not occur, then the content is inappropriate and will be ineffectual. Mood words can reflect various performance capacities. Typically, a list of monosyllabic synonyms for strength, power (force), speed, agility, balance, and endurance are presented to an athlete. The athlete selects from the lists, or augments personal words that have a similar meaning, the capacities and words that are meaningful to him or her. Those words are then inserted into a performance strategy at the time and during the appropriate task-relevant thoughts when they will be most effective. For example, a rower taking the catch in a stroke might think "BOOM" as a way of elevating the power of that part of the stroke. Rowers have reported that this does increase performance over thinking normally or imaging what is intended. That talk is more effective than imagery during performance has been reported (Oei & Barber, 1989). Mood words of this type increase the effectiveness of thinking. When one wants to be powerful, thinking words that make one feel powerful will increase the actions of power. Rushall (1984a) reported unpublished data on a grip-strength test with four Canadian rowers. Three thought-content conditions were used: (a) normal thought content as a control, (b) the utterance of a phrase that had the correct meaning but was unrelated to the emotional state needed to be strong (e.g., the words "exert force"), and (c) the utterance of mood words, such as "crush," "grind," etc., of the athletes' choosing. All athletes recorded the strongest grip under the emotive mood word condition. Mood words enhance performance marginally better than either task-relevant content or positive self-statements (Holingen & Vikander, 1987; Kristiansen, 1992; Rushall, 1984b; Rushall et al., 1988; Rushall & Shewchuck, 1989). Closure Task-relevant content, positive self-statements, and mood words presently are perceived to be the structures that should be employed as thought content during a segmented competitive performance. They should be integrated into a meaningful dialogue by each athlete, and practiced, performed, and evaluated for effect and possible improvement. Their inclusion in training programs is not difficult, and practice could constitute "sporting homework" in a fashion that is not possible with other performance factors. The magnitudes of the performance enhancements reported in controlled research settings with high-level athletes makes the use of thought-content skills an imperative for athletes wishing to maximize their performance and for coaches seeking to optimize their effectiveness. These four psychological determinants of performance produced enhancements and alterations in a large number of the studies and participants considered. Performance improvements occurred without any notable extra perceived exertion (Chorkawy, 1982; Ford, 1982; McKinnon, 1985), increase in direct measurements of physiological parameters (Kristiansen, 1992; Morgan, Horstman, Cymerman, & Stokes, 1983; Rushall et al., 1988; Wilmore, 1970), or other increased thought dynamics, such as the degree of concentration or "trying harder" (Chorkawy, 1982; Ford, 1982; McKinnon, 1985). These mental activities are a "painless" avenue for assisting athletes to improve. When athletes are exposed to these skills and evaluate their effects they are particularly enthusiastic about their value and use. Psychology offers many performance determinants, only a few being addressed here. It needs to be recognized that psychology becomes more important, the higher the standard of competitor. It has been reported that psychological factors are better discriminators of high-level performance capacity than physiological measures (McDonald, 1984). For example, Silva, Shultz, Haslam, Martin, and Murray (1985) found that psychological variables discriminated Olympic wrestling team qualifiers from nonqualifiers better than physiological variables. Psychology has a major role to play in determining the levels of performance achieved in competitive settings. Athletes should be appraised of the techniques and provided practice opportunities for their implementation as part of the evolving professions of coaching and sport psychology. References Averill, J. R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286-303. Botterill, C. (1977, September). Goal setting and performance on an endurance task. A paper presented at the annual meeting of the Canadian Association of Sports Sciences Conference, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. Chorkawy, A. L. (1982). The effects of cognitive strategies on the performance of female swimmers. 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Influence of motivation on physical work capacity and performance. In W. P. Morgan (Ed.), Contemporary readings in sport psychology. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Psychologicl Fctors ssocited with lcohol Use by High School thletes. by Elizbeth K. Green , Kevin L. Burke , Chrles L. Nix , Keith W. Lmbrecht , Dvid C. Mson The most widely used nd bused recretionl drug by thletes is lcohol (Gy, Minelli, Tripp, & Keilitz, 1990; Overmn & Terry, 1991). Studies hve exmined the frequency nd intensity of lcohol use by thletes (nderson, lbrecht, Hough, & McGrw, 1991; nderson & McKeg, 1985; Heitzinger & Heitzinger, 1986), the thletes' ttitudes towrd the uses of lcohol (Flynn & Shoemker, 1989; Overmn & Terry, 1991), nd identified specific psychologicl fctors ssocited with thletes' uses of lcohol (Evns, Weinberg, & Jckson, 1992). This reserch hs focused minly on lcohol use mong professionl nd collegite thletes, nd hs virtully overlooked lcohol use mong high school thletes. The lck of reserch concerning lcohol use mong high school thletes my rise from the trditionl myth tht high school thletes re more inclined to void using lcohol thn high school non-thletes (Muldoon, 1986). This myth ssumes high school thletes will void using lcohol becuse of its dverse ffects on trining nd becuse thletes do not hve the time to become involved with lcohol (Crr, Kennedy, & Dimick, 1990). Yet, reserch (Crr et l., 1990) indictes lcohol use is prevlent mong high school thletes. Severl rticles hve been written which focus primrily on identifying specific psychologicl fctors relted to thlete lcohol use (Evns et l., 1992; Heymn, 1990; Tricker & Cook, 1990). Evns et l.'s (1992) study ttempted to ssocite severl psychologicl fctors to lcohol use mong collegite thletes. These specific psychologicl fctors were tension-nxiety, depression, nger, ftigue, vigor, confusion, nd self-esteem. Evns et l.'s (1992) study lso investigted whether pressures stemming from cdemics, prent(s) or gurdin(s), nd coches relte to lcohol use by collegite thletes. High school coches should ply significnt role in the development nd implementtion of lcohol intervention progrms for their thletes (Tricker & Cook, 1990). These intervention progrms my be more effective if the focus is on mking the high school thlete wre of how to identify signs nd symptoms of specific psychologicl fctors found to be ssocited with lcohol use. Once identified, thletes my be tught how to cope with these psychologicl fctors. Therefore, it is impertive reserchers identify specific psychologicl fctors ssocited with lcohol use by high school thletes. The purpose of this study ws to replicte Evns, Weinberg, nd Jckson's (1992) investigtion by ttempting to identify whether the following psychologicl fctors were ssocited with lcohol use by high school thletes: tension-nxiety, depression, nger, ftigue, vigor, confusion, nd self-esteem. This study lso ttempted to identify whether pressures resulting from cdemics, prents or gurdins, nd coches were ssocited with lcohol use by high school thletes. Method Subjects The subjects for this study were 300 mle (n = 148) nd femle (n = 152) high school thletes, ges 16-18 (M = 16.56), from six Midwestern high schools. The thletes included sophomores (n = 119), juniors (n = 119), nd seniors (n = 62). These thletes hd been members of t lest one of the school's thletic tems for minimum of one seson. In mny instnces, these thletes prticipted on one to three different thletic tems (M = 2) ech school yer. These thletes were representtives of the following vrsity nd junior vrsity sports: bsebll (n = 26), bsketbll (n = 92), bowling (n = 2), cross country (n = 28), footbll (n = 60), gymnstics (n = 4), soccer (n = 66), softbll (n = 41), swimming (n = 16), trck nd field (n = 111), volleybll (n = 23), nd wrestling (n = 35). Ech thlete ws dministered four seprte questionnires: (1) demogrphic nd cdemic questionnire, (2) Profile of Mood Sttes (POMS), (McNir, Lorr, & Dropplemn, 1971), (3) Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), (Coopersmith, 1967), nd (4) lcohol questionnire. The resercher distributed 600 consent forms to high school student-thletes in six public high schools. The return of the consent form to the resercher ws required for prticiption in this study. Three hundred of the 600 consent forms were rendered for return rte of 50%. totl of 300 questionnires nd inventories were completed by student-thletes t six Midwestern public high schools. Prentl consent nd the thlete's ssent ws obtined before ny questionnire ws dministered to the thlete. pprtus Demogrphic nd cdemic Questionnire. The demogrphic nd cdemic questionnire ws used to gther demogrphic chrcteristics on the thlete, such s ge, gender, sport, nd grde point verge. lso, thletes responded on 5 point intensity scle (1 signifying no pressure nd 5 signifying extreme pressure) to seven questions ddressing the pressures stemming from the role s student-thlete. Profile of Mood Sttes. The POMS ws used to mesure six mood or ffective sttes: tension-nxiety, depression, nger, vigor, ftigue, nd confusion (McNir et l., 1971). thletes responded on 5-point intensity scle (1 signifying not t ll nd 5 signifying extremely) to list of 65 words or phrses tht describe moods or feelings one my hve experienced over the pst week or while completing the POMS. Tests were hnd scored with overly stencils provided by the Eductionl nd Industril Testing Service. McNir, Lorr, nd Dropplemn (1971) suggest the POMS could prove useful in reserch involving dolescent subjects. Severl reserch investigtions (Crighed, Privette, Vllinos, & Brykit, 1986; McGown & Miller, 1989; Tuckmn, 1986) hve indeed shown the usefulness of the POMS with dolescent popultions. With respect to this study, Kunder-Richrdson (KR20S) relibility estimtes were clculted for the POMS subscles (r = .72). This coefficient indictes modertely strong inter-item consistency of the POMS for use with dolescent popultions. Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. Ech thlete's self-esteem ws mesured by the dult form of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (Coopersmith, 1967). thletes responded either "like me" or "unlike me" to 25 descriptive sttements. totl self-esteem score ws obtined by summing the self-esteem items nswered correctly nd multiplying this number by four. lcohol Questionnire. The lcohol questionnire (Evns et l., 1992) ws used to gther informtion on the frequency, intensity, nd durtion of lcohol use by the thlete. lso, thletes responded to questions pertining to the resons why they use, do not use, or hve stopped using lcohol. Procedures thletic directors from ten Midwestern high schools were contcted vi telephone to request their ssistnce in conducting this study t their school. Those six thletic directors who greed to ssist in this study were miled copy of the informed consent form nd ech questionnire. week lter the thletic directors were contcted by telephone to confirm their ssistnce in this investigtion. The collection of dt took plce in two meetings with the thletes during either their physicl eduction clsses, helth clsses, or study hlls. During the first meeting, the resercher explined the purpose of the study, nswered ny questions concerning the study, nd distributed the consent forms to the student-thletes. During the second meeting with the student-thletes, the consent forms were collected nd questionnires dministered. ll questionnires were dministered by one resercher. The resercher red the instructions for completing the questionnire. In the cse of the POMS, specific instructions on how to complete the POMS s specified by the Edits mnul for the POMS (McNir, Lorr, & Dropplemn, 1971) were followed. Results Descriptive Sttistics. Descriptive sttistics were tbulted on the questions comprising the lcohol questionnire. Subjects who reported using lcohol t lest once in the pst 12 months were clssified s n lcohol user nd subjects who did not use lcohol in the pst 12 months were clssified s n lcohol nonuser. The users comprised 54.7% (N = -152) of the subject popultion nd the nonusers comprised 45.3% (N = -148). The verge number of lcoholic drinks consumed per dy by the user group ws 4. The users were found to hve been consuming lcohol for n verge of 2 yers. The primry resons given by the student-thletes for using lcohol were to "hve good time with friends," "to celebrte", "to mke the thlete feel good," nd to "help the thlete del with the worries nd pressures of school." The resons thletes gve for using lcohol, cn be found in Tble 1. thletes lso reported severl "other" resons for using lcohol tht were not included s choice on the lcohol questionnire. mong these resons were to "hve something to do on the weekend," to "relx nd be one's self round friends," nd to "hve fun t prties." The three mjor resons given by the student-thletes for not using lcohol were "concerns bout the effects on helth," the "thlete does not like lcohol," nd the "use of lcohol is ginst the thlete's beliefs." There were severl "other" resons thletes gve for not using lcohol. Some of these resons included lcohol use is "illegl by minors," "hurts thletic performnce," "ginst coch's rules," nd the "thlete is frid of getting cught." The resons thletes gve for not using lcohol re summrized in Tble 2. The lst question on the lcohol questionnire delt with the frequency of lcohol use during the lst competitive seson. The results indicted 71.3% of the thletes did not consume ny lcohol during their lst competitive seson. With regrds to those thletes who did use lcohol during their lst competitive seson, 19.3% indicted using lcohol once or twice, 5.3% reported using lcohol three or four times, 1.7% reported using lcohol five or six times, nd 2.3% reported using lcohol 7 or more times (Tble 3). Tble 1 Resons for lcohol Use by tletes (N = 164) Resons for lcohol Use lcohol % Hve good time with friends 34.3 To celebrte 14.3 Mkes the thlete feel good 3.7 Helps the thlete del with the worries 1.0 nd pressures of thletics Other (indicted by thlete) 5.0 2 x 2 (behvior = lcohol user/non-user x gender = mle/femle) multivrite nlysis of vrince (MNOV) ws conducted to distinguish significnt differences between users nd nonusers on the POMS subscles. The MNOV ws used to decrese the likelihood of type 1 error. The results of the MNOV on the POMS subscles indicted no significnt behvior-gender interction effect, therefore overll multivrite min effects for behvior nd gender were exmined. significnt multivrite behvior min effect ws found on the POMS subscles, Wilks lmbd = .05, p [less thn] .024. Tble 2 Resons for Non-lcohol Use by thletes (N = 136) Resons for lcohol Use lcohol % thlete is concerned bout the effects on helth 14.3 thlete does not like lcohol 10.0 lcohol use is ginst thlete's beliefs 7.3 lcohol use hurts thletic performnce 5.0 thlete hs no desire to experience the effects of lcohol 2.3 lcohol use is ginst coch's rules 2.0 thlete is frid of getting cught 1.7 When nlyzing the univrite NOVs ccounting for the six POMS subscles Bonferonni djustment ws conducted, mking the level of significnce .01. One of the POMS subscles ws significnt, nger, f(1,296) = 8.14, p [less thn] .004. The men score for lcohol users on nger (M = 17.7) were ll higher thn those for nonusers on nger (M = -14.7). significnt min effect for gender ws not found (see Tble 4). 2 x 2 (behvior x gender) MNOV ws lso conducted to distinguish significnt differences between lcohol users nd nonusers on the stress questions. The results of the MNOV indicted no significnt behvior x gender interction effect. Therefore, overll multivrite min effects for behvior nd gender on the stress questions were exmined. Significnt overll multivrite min effects were found for both behvior, Wilks lmbd = 3.10, p [less thn] .001, nd gender, Wilks lmbd = 4.04, p [less thn] .001, on the stress questions. Tble 3 lcohol Use by thletes during Competitive Seson (N = 300) thlete lcohol Use Frequency Percentge 0 times 214 71.3 1-2 times 58 19.3 3-4 times 16 5.3 5-6 times 5 1.7 7 or more times 7 2.3 In regrds to the univrite NOVs conducted on the stress questions, Bonferonni djustment determined the level of significnce to be .01. significnt behvior min effect f = (1,296) = 6080, p [less thn] .009, ws found on the stress question concerning the thletes' nxieties bout receiving scholrship to college. The men score (M = 3.91) for nonusers ws significntly higher thn the men score (M = 3.50) for users. significnt gender min effect f = (1,296) = 8.59, p [less thn] .003, ws found on the stress question concerning the pressure thletes feel to win. The men score (M = 4.06) for the mles ws higher thn the men score (M = 3.74) for femles (see Tble 5). seprte NOV ws used to distinguish significnt differences between users nd nonusers on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory. No significnt differences were found on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (see Tble 6). Discussion The reserch literture regrding high school thletes nd lcohol hs focused minly on determining the extent to which high school thletes use lcohol (Brown & Finn, 1982; Crr et l., 1990). The results of the present investigtion confirm lcohol ws used by high school thletes to vrying degrees. The purpose of this study ws not to confirm the extent to which high school thletes use lcohol, but to identify [TBULR DT FOR TBLE 4 OMITTED] whether specific psychologicl fctors were ssocited with thletes who use lcohol. The specific psychologicl fctors exmined were tension-nxiety, depression, nger, vigor, ftigue, confusion, nd self-esteem. nger ws the one fctor in which sttisticlly significnt differences were found between thletes who use lcohol nd thletes who do not use lcohol. The men score on nger ws higher for those thletes who reported using lcohol thn for those thletes who did not report using lcohol. These findings were consistent with Evns, Weinberg, nd Jckson's (1992) study involving collegite thletes. Evns, Weinberg, [TBULR DT FOR TBLE 5 OMITTED] nd Jckson (1992) suggest the need of further inquiry into the symbiotic reltionship of nger, thletic prticiption, nd lcohol use. The use of physicl ggression by thletes hs been encourged during sport situtions nd discourged during nonsport situtions (Heymn, 1990). Heymn (1990) discussed how some thletes hve difficulty controlling physiclly ggressive behviors in nonsport situtions when these behviors hve been reinforced during sport situtions. Often, thletes hve blmed displys of physiclly ggressive behvior on lcohol use (Heymn, 1990). The psychologicl connection between nger nd ggression my wrrnt further inquiry into the reltionship of these psychologicl fctors nd lcohol use by high school thletes. Severl reserch rticles (McGuire, 1990; Roberts-Wilbur, Wilbur, & Morris, 1987), hve suggested n ssocition exists between thletes' self-esteem nd lcohol nd drug use. They contend thletes use lcohol in n ttempt to cope with threts to self-esteem resulting from the thletic environment. The results of the present investigtion did not find self-esteem to be ssocited with lcohol use by high school thletes. lthough this finding is inconsistent with erlier reserch (McGuire, 1990; Roberts-Wilbur et l., 1987) it is prticulrly relevnt to current literture on lcohol use by dolescents. Pst reserch (Kovch & Glickmn, 1986; Letteri & Ludford, 1981) hs suggested self-esteem is neither ssocited nor relted with dolescent lcohol use. Further reserch is needed to confirm whether self-esteem is unrelted to lcohol use by high school thletes. Tble 6 Mens nd Stndrd Devitions for Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (N = -300) Groups M SD Users 6.70 20.7 (N = -164) Non-users 68.7 22.3 (N = -136) Mle 70.3 21.3 (N = -148) Femle 65.3 21.2 (N = -152) Mle users 69.3 19.8 (N = -83) Mle non-users 71.6 23.2 (N = -65) Femle users 64.7 21.4 (N = -81) Femle non-users 66.0 21.2 (N = -71) lthough self-esteem ws found to be unrelted to lcohol use by high school thletes, n interesting comprison cn be mde between the findings of the present investigtion nd the findings of Evns, Weinberg, nd Jckson (1992). Evns et l., (1992) investigtion found mles to hve higher self-esteem scores thn femles, finding consistent with the present investigtion. The reserch literture (Dud, 1986; Evns et l., 1992) suggests this vrition in self-esteem scores my result from role conflict between femininity nd thletic prowess. This conflict hs resulted from pst perceptions of gender role conflicts nd thletic prticiption. The present investigtion lso ttempted to identify whether certin stressors were ssocited with lcohol use by high school thletes. The results from the demogrphic nd cdemic questionnire reveled significnt differences for the question regrding the thletes' nxieties concerning receiving scholrship to college. thletes who din thletes who used lcohol. possible explntion for this finding my be non-lcohol using thletes perceive lcohol s n obstcle in obtining scholrship to colleges. Wheres thletes my use lcohol in n ttempt to cope with the nxieties ssocited with obtining scholrships. However, it must be understood individul thletes will rect differently to the sme type of stressor. Significnt differences were found in the comprison of mle nd femles thletes regrding the question "how much pressure do you feel to win." The mle thletes felt significntly greter pressure to win thn femle thletes. Dud (1986) discussed how pst society hs stereotyped the roles femle thletes were expected to model. Unfortuntely, pst society hs recognized the feminine imge s more importnt thn competitive excellence (Dud, 1986). This my lend support to the findings of current study regrding pressure to win mong high school thletes. There is substntil mount of literture regrding the resons why high school students use or do not use lcohol (Johnston & O'Mlley, 1986). The results of this study found the resons thletes gve for using lcohol to be consistent with the resons high school non-thletes gve for using lcohol. The three primry resons high school thletes nd non-thletes reported for using lcohol were to "hve good time with friends," to "celebrte," nd to "mke one feel good." The peer cluster theory (Oetting & Beuvis, 1986) could possibly lend support in explining this consistency of resons given for lcohol use by both high school thletes nd non-thletes. The peer cluster theory mintins the influence of the peer cluster to which one belongs will essentilly determine one's motive for prticipting in certin legl nd illegl behviors. During high school, peer clusters generlly consist of both thletes nd non-thletes. This diversity in peer clusters my explin the similrity in resons for lcohol use by both thletes nd non-thletes. lcohol eduction nd prevention progrms for high school thletes hve focused primrily on the detriments of using lcohol. These progrms hve virtully ignored the mny psychologicl constituents tht cn led to lcohol use by high school thletes. This study identified nger, pressure to win, nd nxiety to receive college scholrship s fctors relted to lcohol use by high school thletes. lcohol prevention nd eduction progrms designed for high school thletes my become more effective by teching the thlete to understnd nd cope with the nger nd vrious pressures resulting from thletic prticiption. This preliminry investigtion only begn to ddress the issue of identifying psychologicl fctors ssocited with lcohol use by high school thletes. More studies need to be performed to help provide better understnding of the psychologicl fctors ssocited with high school thletes' uses of lcohol. Future studies my trget the role nger nd ggression my ply in lcohol use mong high school thletes. Studies could ttempt to identify to wht extent (if ny) thletes use lcohol in ttempt to lessen nxieties nd pressures ssocited with obtining scholrship to college. Reserchers my investigte the effectiveness of lcohol prevention progrms for high school thletes which focus on teching thletes how to identify nd cope with the symptoms of psychologicl fctors which my led to lcohol use. References nderson, W., lbrecht, D., Hough, D., & McGrw, C. (1991). ntionl study of lcohol nd drug use by collegite thletes. The Physicin nd Sportsmedicine, 19(2), 91-104. nderson, W. ., & McKeg, D. B. (1985). 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The Sport Psychologist, 6, 24-41. Flynn, C. ., & Shoemker, T. . (1989). lcohol nd college thletes: Frequency of use versus perceptions of others. NSP Journl, 27(2), 172-176. Gy, J. E., Minelli, M. J., Tripp, D., & Keilitz, D. (1990). lcohol nd the thlete: university's response. Journl of lcohol nd Drug Eduction, 35(2), 81-86. Heitzinger nd ssocites (1986). 1981-1986 dt collection nd nlysis. High school, college, professionl thletes: lcohol/drug survey. Mdison, WI: Heitzinger nd ssocites. Heymn, S. R. (1990). Psychologicl fctors in the use of recretionl drugs nd lcohol. In R. Tricker & D. L. Cook (Eds.), thlete t risk: Drugs nd Sport (pp. 73-92), Dubuque, I: Wm. C. Brown. Johnston, L. D., & O'Mlley, P. M. (1986). Why do the ntion's students use drugs nd lcohol Self reported resons from nine ntionl surveys. Journl of Drug Issues, 16(1), 29-66. Kovch, J. ., & Glickmn, N. W. (1986). Levels nd psychologicl correltions of dolescent drug use. Journl of Youth nd dolescence, 15(1), 61-77. 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