Ethics In Disability Sports - Essay Example

Ethics In Disability Sports Which Classification System, the Functional or the Disability Specific System, is more effective to use within Disability Sports? 1. Introduction Classification subsists to offer a configuration or structure for competition among athletes with various shapes and stages of disorders. To contribute in disability sport at a privileged point, one needs to work through a sorting process. Categorization is a structure for competition in sports. Classification is based on a personnel functional capability to take constituent in a sport, and helps determine one's eligibility to contend in region, province, national and international contests. Classification helps make sure athletes of comparable abilities compete against one another. Categorization is unlike for each sport and can be quite involved at start the process as early in sporting career. Classifiers determine whether an athlete is eligible and grouped into classes for their sport. The paper will review the classification systems used by sports governing bodies and international sports organizations for disabled participants. Also, it will scrutinize current issues related to these systems, such as operational, integrated, and player classification systems. 2. What is Disability Classification Disability classification is used to reduce the effect that disability has on competition. Classification is used to create a social system for competition between athletes with disability and is no different in this respect as it is simply the process of putting athletes into groups for the purposes of competition. All Paralympics sports use classes and a growing number of non-Paralympics sports are developing classification systems to give people with disabilities the option of contending in a greater diversity of sports. 3. Disability Sport Disability sport can be defined as recreational, competitive, and Paralympics sport for individuals with disabilities or a body of knowledge that guides philosophy and practices. The relationship among disability, sport, and knowledge is multifaceted. Such concepts are created by social groups and reflect the affordances and constraints of specific times and cultures. Disabilities have been conceptualized as limitations in physical, mental, or sensory functional ability and activity that prevent or compromise equitable participation in able-bodied sport. Disability sport has been associated mainly with disability sport organizations (DSOs) or the International Paralympics Committee (IPC). However, people with disabilities can now choose to participate in a wide variety of sport contexts (Sherrill & Williams 1996). Thus, the meaning of disability sport has been widened to include any combination of sport and disability. DePauw defined disability sport as a term that gives equal weight to concepts of disability and sport (1986). 4. Theories and Conceptualizations of Sport Disability Some of the studies and researchers have defined theories of sports disability that might fit into a disability sport conceptual framework. 5. Sport Performance Theory Sport performance theory includes all of the inconstant, excluding classification, that facilitate explaining or foreseeing phenomenon such as attaining an individual best, winning and losing, managing injury, burnout, stress, anxiety, and other negative states, demonstrating health, well-being, confidence, empowerment, and other positive states. These phenomena need to be addressed unconnectedly for dissimilar contribution levels like recreational, competitive, Paralympics sport contexts, and clusters of demographic factors including age, gender, type and beginning of disability. Many experts and specialists advocate that investigation on sport performance be approached in a disciplinary way by recognizing and influencing applicable variables associated with biomechanics, exercise physiology, sport psychology, and sport sociology. Another approach may be examining variables associated with effective and non-effective coaching, teaching, training, learning, counseling, administration, and other processes that affect sport performance. Attention must be given to theories applicable to winter sports as well as those in summer. Sport performance theory is a measurement or metric theory, which concerns to the strength, dependability, consistency and objectivity of data-gathering instruments and protocols (Sherrill & O'Connor 1999). Most of the research that is needed by the disability sport community cannot be done without attention to measurement theory. Washburn and Copay (1999) relate measurement theory to examine the validity of a portable accelerometer in assessing energy expenditure during wheelchair pushing. Yang and Porretta (1999) make use of learning strategy theory to enhance performance on the basketball free throw, overhand softball throw, and dart throw by adolescents with mild mental retardation. 6. Participation Theory Participation theory is structured under the constructs of who, when, where, what, and how. The word who includes research on demographic variables, such as age, gender, ethnic group type, and severity of disability and how these variables give details and predict initial and continuing sport participation. The word when may focus on variables that affect most favorable times for socialization or enrollment into sport including youth sport, achievement of personal performance bests, and retirement from the sport. The word where addresses a sport context opportunity system like that described by Sherrill and Williams (1996) as well as issues of inclusion and integration. The declaration of what can be confronted to recognize variables that explain and predict levels of individual investment and outcomes in various aspects of participation such as preparation, spectatorship, and competition. The statement of how highlights on precise socialization, coaching, or organizational processes and dynamics that maximize participation. Wheeler et al. (1999) made a strong contribution to participation theory by using a qualitative research methodology to examine the process of personal investment in disability sport by athletes from four countries. Wheeler et al.'s study initiates with critical thinking about transition theory and personal investment theory (Maehr & Braskamp 1986), and ends with a personal investment process model specifically for Paralympics athletes. 7. Communication Theory Communication theory pertains to ways of communicating values, thinking, perceptions, thoughts, attitudes, intentions, and actions in relation to disability sport. Communication theory provides a variable conceptual framework for addressing research topics that were proposed by International Paralympics Committee Sport Science Committee (IPCSSC) that embrace the method of educating and circulating information within and outside the disability sport community, spectatorship, media, and attitudes (Mastro et al. 1996). Research that can be managed under communication theory includes Schell and Duncan's (1999) study on media coverage of the 1996 Paralympics Games. 8. Disability Sport Classification Theory According to Vanlandewijck and Chappel (1996), the basic objective of classification is to make sure that winning or losing an event relies on aptitude, talent, training, ability, strength, health, enthusiasm and inspiration rather than inequality among competitors on disability concerning variables such as spasticity, paralysis, absence of limb segments. Athletes are coached or programmed) for various events like track, field, swimming or team sports, based on their classification. Comparable research is needed on the classification systems used in other sports. One should also need to learn about how statistical interactions among classification and selected other variables such as practice frequency and intensity, motivation orientation, type of coaching influence explaining and predicting sport performance. Experts persist in developing a system that is fair to everyone. Vanlandewijck and Chappel (1996) contribute to theory by analyzing data from the 1996 Paralympics and statistically testing different approaches to fairness. 9. Conceptualizations of Disability on the Development of Disability Sport Disability is the consequence of an impairment, that can be physical, mental, sensory, cognitive, emotional, or a combination of these. A disability may be present from birth, or can occur during a person's life. Oliver (1996) stated that disabled persons are identified through three key elements, the presence of impairment, the experience of externally imposed restrictions, and self-identification as a disabled person. Thus, disability is an intricate phenomenon, reflecting the relation between features of a person's body and the attributes of the society in which a person lives. Disability sport provides the best likely way out of the traps of negative recognition by offering the potential for positive subjectivity, and a sense of personal empowerment. Improved health and fitness, greater self-confidence and the recognition, permits them to stick to their dominant identity of a disabled sportsman. Consequently, individuals with impairments have to validate their disability identity on the basis of discrimination and prejudice rather than elucidating their state in terms of personal failure. 10. Social, Political and Ethical Issues in Disability Sport People with disabilities often face societal barriers and disability evokes negative perceptions and discrimination in many societies. As a result of the disgrace related to disability, people with disabilities are generally excluded from education, employment and community life which deprives them of opportunities essential to their social development, health and well-being. In some societies, persons with disabilities are considered dependent and seen as incapable, thus encouraging inactivity, which often causes individuals with physical disabilities to experience restricted mobility beyond the cause of their disability. These attitudes and perceptions can act as barriers in many aspects of this target group's life, and can result in a lack of confidence and a reluctance to interact with members of the general public. It is often felt by people with a disability that the accepted face of sport inherently precludes them as a group. As such, one of the fundamental barriers that they face is being seen by both themselves and by others as capable and legitimate participants in sports activity. This is further resistant by an existing attitude among some that sport in the context of people with a disability is only valid in terms of therapy. That is, it only has a role to play in relation to rehabilitation rather than as an activity in its own right. Sport can help reduce the disgrace and discrimination coupled with disabilities because it can transform community attitudes about persons with disabilities by highlighting their skills and reducing the tendency to see the disability instead of the person. Through sport, persons without disabilities interact with persons with disabilities in a positive context, forcing them to reshape assumptions about what persons with disabilities can and cannot do. The media are also seen to play a key role in shaping and reinforcing public perceptions of the link between people with a disability and sport. A lack of awareness of other people with a disability participating can act as a key barrier where the sport is not even considered a possible behavior. Masses with a disability may not be aware of others around them taking part in sport or there may be no visible role models. Lack of awareness of facilities or activities available is also one of the major barriers. People have no knowledge of sport at any level that was available and that they felt they would be able to take part in. As such, they are prevented from even considering taking part in sport. Sport, as an option, had no profile in the context of their life. These people tend to be more isolated, either physically such as in a rural location or on a more emotional level such as coming to terms with a recent disability or without strong support networks. In addition, they did not generally have access to community groups or organizations such as day centers or, alternatively, had chosen not to become involved with such organizations (Mastro et al. 1996). Disability research ethics are located within the wider research ethics framework. Ethical principles require that any research Involving human subjects is framed and conducted in a way that respects the human rights of the individuals concerned. Vanlandewijck and Chappel (1996) have defined ethical evaluation factors which include equality, full and effective participation and inclusion in society, respect for difference and accessibility. Wheeler et al. (1999) suggest that, particularly in complex research situations, clear structures for supervision and ethical advice for the researchers are essential, and they strongly recommend the appointment of a research advisory group, with a named responsibility for ethical standards. Ethical issues may arise at points during the research process, when they cannot be passed on to a supervisor or manager, places considerable responsibility upon the field researcher. Divided loyalties oblige researchers to balance their responsibilities to sponsor, employer, profession and respondent. A shared understanding of governance, accountability and ethical constraints must run through professional associations, funders and research organizations. It is proved to be helpful to differentiate between procedural ethics (what happens in research design and research ethics committees) and ethics in practice (what happens in the interactions between researcher and participants and in the way data are interpreted, communicated and used). Ethics in practice is enhanced by procedural ethics and the underlying values are the same (Guillemin & Gillam 2004). Athletes with disabilities are not treated similarly to able-bodied athletes. Some of websites, magazines and newsletters provide some coverage of sport participation by people with disabilities. Political rights, social inclusion and citizenship have come to the fore in developed and some developing countries. The debate has moved beyond a concern about the perceived cost of maintaining dependent people with disabilities to finding effective ways to ensure that people with disabilities can participate in and contribute to society in all spheres of life and especially in the field of sports. Disability abuse, rights movement and insurance are some of the chief issues relating to political problems. Media coverage of sporting events involving persons with disabilities can play a major role in creating more positive and accurate perceptions. For instance, the growing profile of the Paralympics has significantly contributed to increasing recognition of persons with disabilities. Over 300 million people watched television coverage of the 2000 Sydney Paralympics Games (Sherrill & Williams 1996). This single event significantly increased awareness of the capabilities of persons with disabilities. Women with disabilities often experience double discrimination on the basis of their gender and their disability. Studies show that 93% of women with disabilities do not participate in sport or physical exercise and women make up only one-third of athletes with disabilities in international competitions. Women with disabilities are also more likely to be victims of violence, including sexual violence (Washburn and Copay 1999). 11. Future Developments in Disability Sport Discussion in sport and disability has found a significant presence compared to other areas of sport and development. There are innumerable challenges in implementing sport programs for persons with disability sport. People with disabilities may be difficult to locate, their transportation may not be accessible. Additionally, finding coaches who believe in talent, spirit and capabilities of persons despite their disability is also not easy. Regardless of these challenges, many experts in the field of sport and disability have developed a consensus on the future priorities for growth, support and advocacy in this field. These priorities include increased support, sponsorship and funding in order to conduct discourse and studies on disability sport and developing auxiliary studies on mental health and psychological well-being as an outcome of sport participation for people with disabilities, creating affordable and inexpensive technologies, boosting receptiveness and increasing accessibility in sports. Personal life experiences of disable athletes and sportsmen should be shared with fresh disable sportsmen. Qualitative research into disability sport participation in developing countries should be monitored and evaluated. Utilization of new technologies and online communication should be employed to enhance association and collaboration between development organizations and researchers. Different cultural, political and economical challenges are to be met in promoting sports in disable persons. On an individual level, people with disabilities lack early experience in sport, lack understanding and awareness to tackle disability with sport, limited opportunities and programs for training and participation. There is a lack of necessary opportunities like gymnasiums. Today, people with disabilities participating in sports or other physical activities are not so rare. There are some regions where sport is a mean of luxury and opportunities exist for all classes of people. There is a geography where sport is viewed as a vital part of life. But this is not the case in the entire world. There are also some territories where disable persons face discrimination, their rights are exploited and they are not treated as other members of the society. Keeping this in mind, the following recommendations are made for diverse organizations and governments functioning in different contexts. Discriminatory attitudes of people towards disable people should be eradicated. The rights of disabled people should be same as normal people. Public awareness about the capabilities and rights of disabled people should be increased, and this can best be done by employing athletes with disabilities as public spokespersons. This will establish the required social support, thus ensuring their participation in sports. Sport opportunities should be available on a more equitable basis, so that handicap female and male people can contribute evenly. Many laws, policies, and practices that address people with disabilities are rooted in charity, rather than rights, thus deliberately ignoring their fundamental human rights and perpetuating their dependency rather than making them self sufficient and independent. Disabled persons should be actively engaged in policy development and planning for the establishment of sport programs (DePauw 1986). It is, therefore, hoped that the views provided here will provide the policy makers and key stakeholders with the information needed to motivate, direct and guide them in developing their own sport policies and programs, keeping disabled people in mind. Thus, governments will be able to integrate sports into their national and international strategies. References DePauw, K.P., 1986. Research on sport for athletes with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 292-299. Guillemin, M., & Gillam, L., 2004. Ethics, reflexivity, and ethically important moments in research. Qualitative Inquiry, vol.10, no. 2, pp. 261–280. Maehr, M. L., & Braskamp, L. A., 1986. The motivation factor: A theory of personal investment, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA. Mastro, J.V., Burton, A.W., Rosendahl, M., & Sherrill, C., 1996. Attitudes of elite athletes with impairments toward one another: A hierarchy of preference. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol.13, no. 9, pp. 197-210. Oliver, M., 1996. Understanding disability: From theory to practice, MacMillan Press, London, Basingstoke. Schell, L.A., & Duncan, M.C., 1999. A content analysis of CBS's coverage of the 1996 Paralympics Games. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 27-47. Sherril, C., & Williams, T., 1996. Disability and sport: Psychosocial perspectives on inclusion, integration, and participation. Sport Science Review, vol.5, no. 1, pp. 42-64. Sherril, C., & O'Connor, J., 1999. Guidelines for improving adapted physical activity research. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 18, pp. 1-8. Vanlandewijck, Y.C., & Chappel, R.J., 1996. Integration and classification issues in competitive sports for athletes with disabilities. Sport Science Review, vol. 5, no.1, pp. 65-88. Washburn, R.A., & Copay, A.G., 1999. Assessing physical activity during wheelchair pushing: Validity of a portable accelerometer. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 219-23. Wheeler, G.D., Steadward, R.D., Legg, D., Hutzler, Y., Campbell, E., & Johnson, A., 1999. Personal investment in disability sport careers: An international study. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 219-237. Yang, J., & Porretta, D.L., 1999. Sport/leisure skill learning by adolescents with mild mental retardation: A four-step strategy. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 300-315. Read More