Polygraph Tests in the US - Essay Example

Should the Polygraph be introduced into British policing Critically evaluate the scientific evidence surrounding the instrument's reliability and validity. Polygraph - Introduction & Application A polygraph or lie detector is a device which is considered to hold the unique efficiency to detect lie by measuring and recording several physiological variables (blood pressure, heart rate, skin conductivity, respiration) while a series of questions are being put to the subject (Dawson, 1980). A polygraph test's more scientific name is psycho physiological detection of deception (PDD). On February 2, 1935 by Leonard Keeler, the polygraph machine was first put to test. He conducted an experiment in Portage, Wisconsin to provide an application area for polygraph. Polygraph was often used to request for resignation to the dishonest job applicants in those days (Barland, 1978). Later, an important addition in law in 1988 in the US disapproved the firing of employees based on polygraph results. However, several US government agencies practice the applicability of polygraph in the detection of lie (American Polygraph Association, 1983a; 1983b; American Psychological Association, 1974; 1983). Amongst several government sectors, the police investigators of US also hold the practice of polygraph applicability. The US Supreme Court has left it to the decision of individual jurisdictions whether or not the inclusion of polygraph test should take place in the court cases. On the other hand, in European jurisdictions, the application of polygraph is considered as an unreliable and invalid means of approaching the truth. The procedure for the application of polygraph instrument for lie detection has its beginning with a pre-test interview designed to establish a connection between the tester and the testee. The information gained by this step is called "Control Questions." We might say that just as in a good research design of an experiment a control group exists so in the practical application of polygraph the first step can be considered as the control step. The tester makes it very clear to the subject that the machine being used in connection with his answers holds the efficiency to detect lie. Thus, the subject is being requested to answer truthfully. Next step in lie detection in many cases is the practical application of slim test. In this step, the subject or the testee is requested for deliberately lying and then the tester reports that he was able to detect his/her lie. We might state that the initial tests helps in gaining control reading and acquaintance with the essential biological and mental aspects of the testee. After these initial crucial steps begins the procedure of actual test for lie detection using polygraph. During the actual test, some of the questions are irrelevant and others are probable-lie. In addition, there are certain control questions that are inscribed in the actual test. The remaining questions are those that hold relevance with the actual area of investigation. We might state that a randomized approach to the application of several types of questions is being used to detect lie in the testee. The testee passes the test if the physiological responses as observed in his body during the probable-lie control questions are larger than those during the relevant questions. However, if the testee fails to pass the test, attempts to elicit admissions to the post-test interview are made. These admissions form the most prominent goals of the test. Polygraph- validity and reliability is existent or inexistent The validity and reliability of the results obtained by the administration of polygraph test is an area of great controversy and dispute (Abrams, 1973; Ansley, 1983; Barland, 1981; 1982; 1973). There are some who project the accuracy of polygraph test to the level of 70%-90% of the cases (this might be an overly optimistic view of the instrument). However, others play the essential role of critics and thereby question the scientific base for the application of polygraph as a lie detector. They find the polygraph as a highly unstandardized interrogation technique whose accuracy is essentially difficult to establish. For example, Aldrich Ames was able to pass two polygraph tests with great efficiency. When Aldrich asked his Soviet handlers about the steps he should take to pass the polygraph, they answered that he should just feel relaxed during the time when questions are being put forth. Aldrich followed the essential advice and therefore passed the test. The application of tact in the passing of the polygraph test has considerably reduced its need of applicability in lie detection. Thus, we can state that there exist techniques by virtue of which the polygraph test can be cleared. Moreover, there also exists a potential threat to the innocent ones by relying completely and exclusively on the polygraph test. The polygraph test therefore can be considered inaccurate to be relied on. It is essential to note that accuracy is an essential requirement for a procedure to be valid or reliable and therefore something that lacks accuracy is questionable and unacceptable in the scientific discipline of confident application. Use of Polygraph - Relevant Judicial reviews The court held its focus on the validity and reliability of polygraph machine when was asked to resolve disputes connected with the use of polygraph examinations. For many years, the case on the admissibility of polygraph evidence and the response regarding the validity has been a leading action in the court of law (Frye v. United States, 1923). The Frye case held suspection of robbery and murder on a 19-year-old defendant. The defendant was administered a systolic blood pressure test prior to his presentation to the court. Thus, polygraph usage in the detection of lie in the case of this young defendant was made. Dr. Martson through his scientific data obtained from the administration of polygraph test stated that the defendant was truthful when he denied his involvement in the robbery and murder case. However, Marston was refused to reexamine the same result in the court using the blood pressure test. The result of the court revealed that the truth as exposed by the lie detector called polygraph was not actually true. Thus, the truth was different from what the eminent psychologist Marston presented to the court. Frye was guilty and was therefore subjected to punishment. It is essential to mention here that the failing of polygraph machine could have wrongfully let lose to freedom Frye who was originally a criminal. The critics therefore reveal from the depths of their believe that polygraph holds a big drawback that it has its base on trickery and no science. In addition, it is assumed that the testee lacks the knowledge that the tester will secretly assume denial to certain questions - called "control" questions as less truthful. Essential discussions - to accept or not to accept polygraph Need of introduction of polygraph techniques within the British police holds the intention to hold its applicability with confidence to ascertain guilt of criminal aspects, to protect innocent suspects, and thereby assure better quality of service to the British society. Thus, a decision of polygraph usage approval in British police holds its complete dependence upon the validity and reliability of the polygraph machine. To investigate with confidence the truth in the lie-detecting machine called polygraph we might consider its acceptance confidence as exhibited by its practice in different places and societies. A machine that holds validity in one case of lie-detection should exhibit the same or similar level of accuracy in all other cases. This phenomenon of applicability with equal confidence in all cases is called as reliability. Thus, polygraph needs to fulfill the basic requirements that hold an essential base for its acceptance in the British police. For if, a lie-detecting machine itself exposes an official person to a lie; then it increases confusion in decision-making and therefore proves to be more of hazard than value in delivery of justice. It is essential to note here that the reports of polygraph as presented from several cases and studies are not very positive. Negativity embodied in it holds its stand in stating that the machine is of less value in the provision of truthful stand to the people. The testing of scientific validity of polygraph is a difficult task. The difficulty that presents itself at the most significant level in this case is because of the number of forms that polygraph tests can take. Thus, validity in testing in case of polygraph has different dimensions and therefore can be measured in a number of ways. This discussion certainly presents a picture of the complexity in the validation of polygraph. A great deal of research needs to be done to develop a scientific base and criterion to test the validity of the machine. It is essential to point out here that a good number of research works had been done with regard to the validity testing of polygraph in the past 10 years. A critical review of these research articles have not agreed in conformity with the applicability of polygraph in detection of lie. I would like to present this idea with an example, which often became the reason for my rejection for the acceptance of polygraph in British police. In the area of pharmaceuticals, I refer here to the allopathic means of medicinal substance detection and propagation. We all know that the scientific validity and progress that allopathic science has made since its origin is worth a million times appreciation. In the case of the drugs that are marketed as allopathic drugs, there exist so many rules and regulations. The acceptance of marketing a drug becomes a practice only after meeting rigid standards as imposed by the law. Why is it so much essential to impose such great amount of rigidness in the delivery of safe drugs with proved validity to the market of therapies and therapeutics This is because if a wrong drug is marketed, it might ruin human lives. Just as a drug in allopathic can ruin life of people...so can a lie-detecting machine with insufficiently proved validity and reliability can ruin life and justice both.a more tragic situation... is it notThus, I would strongly recommend that just like allopathic drugs even the polygraph and other instruments should face rigorous scientific tests before acceptance. This is also essential because a deceptive instrument can induce fear even in the innocent's heart. In addition, as far as psychology goes... and humankind prevailsthere should be first a confident existence of justice and only then incorporation of any other logic in a police force. Being a citizen of UK by birth and holding great love and attachment with the land. I would never advocate the acceptance of a machine that holds not the desired level of validity and reliability. Our aim should always be to focus on the best and not to accept anything and everything in the delivery of justice. Nor we should look at US with the eye of accepting whatever it has in its fold. We need to rationalize the reason for acceptance and therefore deny the acceptance of polygraph at least until the time it has not been proved valid and reliable with complete confidence. References Abrams, S. (1973) Polygraph Validity and Reliability: A Review. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 17, p.313-27. American Polygraph Association (1983a) Manual for Polygraph School Inspections. Lithicum Heights, Md.: American Polygraph Association. American Polygraph Association (1983b) Polygraph School Accreditation Standards. Lithicum Heights, Md.: American Polygraph Association. American Psychological Association (1974) Standards for Educational and Psychological Tests. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association. American Psychological Association (1983) Joint Technical Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. unpublished draft, Washington, D. C. Ansley, N. (1983) A Review of the Scientific Literature on the Validity, Reliability and Utility of Polygraph Techniques. Ft. Meade, Md.: National Security Agency. Barland, G. H. (1978) A Survey of the Effect of the Polygraph in Screening Utah Job Applicants: Preliminary Results. in: U.S. Congress, Senate Judiciary Committee, hearings. Barland, G. H. (1981) A Validation and Reliability Study of the Counterintelligence Screening Test. unpublished manuscript, Security Support Battalion, Military Intelligence Group, U.S. Army, Fort George Meade, Md. Barland, G. H. (1982) On the Accuracy of the Polygraph: An Evaluative Review of Lykken's Tremor in the Blood. Polygraph, 11, 258-72. Barland, G. H., and Raskin, D. C. (1973) Detection of Deception. Electrodermal Activity in Psychological Research. eds. W. F. Prokasy and D. C. Raskin p. 418-71. New York: Academic Press. Dawson, M. E. (1980) Physiological Detection of Deception: Measurement of Responses to Questions and Answers During Countermeasure Maneuvers. Psychophysiology. 17, p.8-17. Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (DC Cir. 1923). Read More