An Architectural Design in a Digital World - Essay Example

CONTENTS: Introduction.. Making Ideas Digital Design Process. Evolution or Confusion Learn from the experts.. Virtual Reality.. Conclusion Bibliography. "WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN IN A DIGITAL WORLD" INTRODUCTION: Today it's been half a century since computers were first used to build design. The very first use was for construction planning and analysis. Today we see many important developments like heat, ventilation and air conditioning curtailing to the environmental conditions of the building. The onset of computer graphics was in 1960s which ultimately was the basis of computer aided drafting systems (CAD). Identification of aim Locating the influences in relevance to digital technology combining virtual environments to perceive space and design of architecture, new tools might be developed. As we shape up the interface between the designer and the virtual environment we are naturally going to produce a greater and far better outcome. It will enable the end user to be more creative and experimental and explore possibilities that were previously tedious or impossible. The design possibilities of virtuality will enhance the outlook of environments. After several years of development today the focus has shifted to whether after the computerization of architecture we would be able to handle it. Objective To explain Whether it is a temporary phenomenon or a permanent revolution" "Will this tool hurt the architecture since we're not familiar with it" "Are we ready for the new revolution" "What's digital architecture Whether it has scope Methodology Architects would produce designs using only digital technologies and working strictly in virtual environments. The result obtained to be analyzed in comparison to one attained by conventional method. Informative definition The type of architecture which is produced by the combination of new architectural efforts and in conjunction with digital technology is called Digital architecture. Now we can also term it according to the duration it can last .For any new thing the duration is 10-30 years. If it lasts for 10 it would be popular as a tool another 10 and it would very well be a theory and if it survives all 30 years it will soon be defined as a revolution. History It was the end of the 20th century and the beginning of 21st century that saw the emergence of Digital architecture. It was basically the progress of computer aided software and technologies that aided the drastic makeover. The computer applications transformed the design methodology; this is especially true for the "virtual reality", CAD/CAM technologies and internet. Analysis Digital architecture today is how drafting was invented by the Greek or how modelling came into being in the period of renaissance. We can also consider it as a theory as still it is in the development stages and is being experimented and explored with. Working What it does is that it simply assists the design thinking process of humans through processes like internet aided designs and web based designs. And if this progresses to alter the design methodology in future along with the thinking patterns then we might be witnessing something that will be more than just a theory.. Implementation To assess the possibilities of digital architecture to the fullest FEIDAD Award (Far East International Digital Architectural Design Award) was launched in 2000.The major aim of it was to capture projects using digital concepts like electronic media, information, computing, cyberspace and virtual to define and elaborate on future spaces and architecture in digital age. The study and utilization of new techniques would allow the most creative minds to come together anywhere in the world to construct and imagine collectively richer, dynamic and digitally enabled collaborative work environments. The digital designing will provide precise and accurate details which will have a level of very high sophistication to it. Organization ACADIA Association for Computer aided design was developed in 1981 for the purpose of enhancing communication and extensive analysis in the use of computers in architecture. It is also associated with researches conducted in fields of development of computer aides that further enhance the designs rather than imply produce. It is the oldest organization in the world focusing on organizing competitions to encourage research. New Carrier: Digital architecture has opened up a new horizon of career opportunities for the graduates of digitally advanced architectural education. Target specific software has been developed through which design can be managed and built. Change: In the digitalized environment less time is now given for the learning of the old methodology and more emphasis are laid upon the learning of the new technology integrating it into the subject .These changes and financial demands on the students is a bit heavy for now and they have to absorb this new education of using tools and other digital technologies to fit in. Naturally digital designs require digital presentations Today architecture schools face the dilemma of providing adequate computing infrastructure. For this to be really fruitful the schools need to provide conceptual frameworks and strategies for approaching this new technology. Progress: Four decades back it started as computer aided architectural design . Today modelling, drawing, simulation, and building fabrication are routinely performed using computer based technology .The scope has now been extended for the architects and hence now its more "computer-mediated architectural design." The Future of Digital Architecture It is somewhat difficult to predict the future of digital architecture at this stage, although it is progressing at a very fast pace. There are certain elements lying in its path for it to be recognized still. As with every new thing there is controversy. Today computers are mostly used for emails and by common man yet they don't hesitate to criticize digital architecture. Artificial Intelligence is one field of computers that is used much like the working of a human brain that is to say the only difference being that pre-programmed clauses problems and solutions are fed in the program to produce best possible result of situations that are also pre-programmed. The ability of such a field outnumbers a single humans brain easily for in it are programmed situations problems clauses and solutions of thousands of brains. So by thus utilizing this one field one can imagine the endless possibilities that lie ahead as regard when incorporated with the architectural design. An example of such a field is "Deep Blue" which has already beaten the world chess champion. We are also facing the generation gap by which it is very difficult to convince those for whom the old methodologies have worked best. The idea of experimenting with something new that is still in its progressive form with the future unknown does not provide the stability required for this to be appreciated. Then there is the need to upgrade the education of architecture with the changing time only then can it be truly appreciated and also for a speedy and fruitful result of its progress. The future of digital tools rests on the extent to which the architects adapt to the concept that exemplary pieces of architecture can be made using the computer aid. Digital thinking is actually architectural thinking. Vision For digital architecture to progress it needs both the creativeness at a personal level as well as the appreciation of the society. Example: CAD & BIM Digitization in the field of architecture started with the advent of CAD. It is basically electronic drafting rather than the conventional manual drafting. Most recently the electronic drafting has stepped up into Building Information Modelling (BIM) in which a building is modelled by producing the physical aspects of it digitally. The Construction Modeller: It creates 3D models for constructive analysis, procurement optimization, enhancing estimates. With the outcome of such Models there come the drastic changes which touch us both socially and also procedural. Today the students of architecture must concentrate on shifting gears to a more component object orientated technique than the representational geometry. Their thought processes are now to be preoccupied by actual construction and fabrication . This being because these platforms work as a big 3D jigsaw puzzle whose pieces need to be recognized and fitted together. Benefits The incorporation of knowledge-driven analysis and digital simulation tools into the world of architectural design will not only justify the design intention but will also provide the clients with access to things like construction costs, maintenance costs, environmental concerns, online ordering facilities and a whole lot more. Even the issues like safe construction sites, building security, emergency evacuations, indoor environmental health could all be viewed centrally through the BIM model. Also the architects would be able to offer their clients better fee structures as in case of CAD it used to be calculating labour over time whereas BIM would provide deliverable supplied en mass. If Architecture is the blending of science and art then it is about time that the architects not only conceive and develop their ideas but to give them immediate form and explain it though simulations Digital Production and Fabrication It has greatly reconstructed and uplifted the relation between conception and production. One can basically design and produce that is to say from file to factory. Initially it was the blobby forms that drew architects out of sheer frustration towards production of buildings. Digital information is used in the fabrication and construction , foregoing the extensive time consuming production of drawings .It also helps in producing scale models of architectural designs .This sole ability to generate construction information from design information is the greatest defining fulcrum of contemporary architecture. Digital Visualization It further has two branches namely Interdisciplinary visualization This includes artificial environments and involves information architecture. Examples video game worlds, cinema sets, and cyber environments. Disciplinary visualization It is the 3D modelling animation and virtual reality. Examples are all that incorporate architectural information and create buildings. Digital design Drawing: Computer generated or modelled with hand drawing provides a medium of communicating architectural ideas. With the influx of digital media and availability of graphics, this medium is changing by leaps and bounds. Modelling and fabrication: Design and production become united in this and it provides materialism to ideas and projects. It challenges the traditional methods. Presentation graphics: Relationship between client and architect is enhanced through the medium of games, TV and web. Structures Constructed Ron champ Chapel designed by Le Corbusier TWA airport terminal in New York designed by Saarinen . Drawbacks of Old methodologies Linear approach of design process. Limited scope of problem solving Time consuming A lot of paper work Alterations meant drawing again or tedious rubbing. Lack of graphical interfaces Client interactivity nil Benefits of New CAD and CAAD Digital boards Instead of erasers a simple command like undo Changes can be made in split seconds No more paper work More graphical presentations helping clients to visualize Architects can express more effectively and likewise demonstrate their ideas in a more realistic form. 3D models Systems provide the architect more time with creative stages No more just straight lines and right angles. DIFFERENCE OF OLD METHODOLOGY COMPARED TO DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE SOFTWARES AVAILABLE: 1. 3D Home Architect 2. AutoCAD Architecture software 3. Chief Architect 4. The electronic draftsman 5. Design Workshop Lite 6. Residential & home design 7. Domus.CAD 8. Punch software Conclusion: Digital Architecture has transformed the solidity of of real through transparent logic into spatial- order. Digital architecture would definitely be forming a new age era if it completely overtakes the architecture. We therefore must prepare ourselves for surely it is something that will broaden our horizons and change how we think, that is to say it would be giving the value systems a boost and altering aesthetics. It is a revolutionary change for mankind as the application of it changes life and how we look at it. REFERENCES: 1. Ando, T. (1991). Toward New Horizons in Architecture, in K. Nesbit (editor), theorizing a New Agendafor Architecture, Princeton Architectural Press, N.Y. 2. Asanowicz, A. (1999). Evolution of Computer Aided Design: Three Generations of CAD, in A. Brown, 3. M. Knight and P. Berridge (editors.), Architectural Computing from Turing to 2000, eCAADe 4. 1999 Conference Proceedings, Liverpool, UK, 94-100. 5. Gero, J. S. (2002). Advances in IT for building design, in M Anson, J. Ko and E. Lam (editors), Advances 6. In Building Technology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 47-54. 7. Hauser, M. and Scherer, R. (1997). Application of intelligent CAD paradigms to preliminary structural 8. Design, Artificial Intelligence in Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 3, 217-229 Kolarevic, B. (2001). Designing and Manufacturing Architecture in the Digital Age, Architectural 9. Information Management, 19th eCAADe Conference Proceedings, Helsinki, Finland, 117-123 10. Liu, Y. T. (ed). Demonstrating Digital Architecture: 5th FEIDAD Award. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhuser, 2005. Liu, Y. T. (ed). Diversifying Digital Architecture: 2003 FEIDAD Award. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhuser, 2004. Liu, Y. T. (ed). Developing Digital Architecture: 2002 FEIDAD Award. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhuser, 2003. Liu, Y. T. (ed). Defining Digital Architecture: 2001 FEIDAD Award. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhuser, 2002. Liu, Y. T. (ed). Defining Digital Architecture: 2000 FEIDAD Award. Taipei: Dialogue, 2001. 11. . Maver, T. W. (1972). Design paradigms, design aid and design decisions, International Conference on 12. Computers in Architecture, 39-47. 13. Research in Asia (CAADRIA), Faculty of Engineering, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan, 14. 1-5 15. Oxman, R. (2006). Digital design thinking: The new design is the new pedagogy, in A. Kaga and R. Naka 16. (editors), Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Computer-Aided Architectural Design Research 17. in Asia (CAADRIA), Faculty of Engineering, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan, 37-46. 18. Reffat, R. (2003a). Architectural exploration and creativity using intelligent design agents, in W. 19. Dokonal, and U. Hirschberg (editors), Digital Design, Proceeding of eCAADe 2003, Graz, Austria, 20. 181-185. Just a decade ago it was impossible to imagine at what level digital technologies would change architectural practices. Unpredictable even though adaptable, constant transformations of three-dimensional design have given rise to new possibilities. The advances in CAD technologies created new opportunities by allowing the production and construction of very complex forms, which were very difficult and expensive to design, produce and assemble using traditional methods. But does this transformation from drawing boards to computer monitors means different way of designing The traditional process of creation required a certain amount of tactile tools, like a drawing board, pencils, erasers, rulers and others. The computer was used more for administrative and accounting purposes. Undoubtedly, the designer had to consider many different elements before starting the development of the project. Sketches on paper were often the very first communication of an idea. It's very interesting to explore the process of creating a perspective sketch on paper of a building as we will find many similarities with the 3d visualization on a screen. The purpose of perspective is to represent a three-dimensional scene as it would appear to our eyes. The designer has to follow certain rules using two basic geometric entities, points and lines. Parallel lines meet in a point called the vanishing point and parallel planes meet in a line, the horizon. Similar to what happens in our visual perception, the size of an object decreases or increases with the distance of the observer and angles change amplitude. The three parties involved to the construction of a perspective rendering are vision, physical world and its representation. Although the Euclidean geometry describes the physical three-dimensional world, the geometry that explains a perspective view is not Euclidean, but projective geometry and later descriptive. The development of perspective construction covers several centuries and all these rules are still used in computer visualisation of 3d scenes. Maybe the traditional way of producing perspective views by hand is obsolescent, but the matrix of transforming a two-dimensional image into three-dimensional object using computer visualization still follows the rules of geometry theories. An efficient "hand" and mind can produce not only high quality drawings, but also complex forms well generated, this doesn't disprove the fact that the use of CAD programs led the design to a new and more fascinating chapter. First the architectural firms started operating in a two-dimensional environment, using basic elements, such as circles and segments of lines. With the use of 2d programs the designer has the chance to manipulate every element by changing the thickness, the morphology to dashed or dotted, or follow whatever electronic template. With an extremely rich menu and library of objects the user can easily add or remove parts without having to spend time on erasing and recreating every single detail. A more complex utilization of CAD involves the use of surface or solid modelling system, dealing with three-dimensional shapes. The primitive elements, as we called them, are represented by solid shapes such as boxes, spheres, pyramids, torus and so on. Forms that had never been in use before now constitute the main idea and the character of the buildings, raising profound and necessary questions of an aesthetic, psychological and social nature. This contemporary digital architecture appears to reject any notion of typology, continuity, morphology and historic style, by extending a different way of architectural thinking. In any case these new "smooth" shapes have been omnipresent in our lives in many different sections, from toothbrushes to mobiles, from cars to airplanes. For some reason the architectural culture didn't adopt this rounded theory instantly and, until recently, there was no use of three-dimensional digital software, in order to work with smooth curves that can be easily created and manipulated. Historically, CATIA had been in use for twenty years before it was discovered by Gehry's office. It's clear that this challenging use of digital media instead of traditional processes of design is, for many architects that have been trained in the certainties of the Euclidean geometry, the appearance of curvilinear forms that create considerable difficulties. Computer Aided Design Computer Aided Three-Dimensional Interactive Application MAKING IDEAS : The first thing that comes to mind when we hear the word architecture, is buildings, gardens and cities. On the other hand, the appearance of the computers gives a new definition and turns architecture into digital. Through this connection the designers gain access to an environment where the building process is completed using the most efficient instruments and methods. But can one have ideas and also make them at the same time The computer role is constantly changing and offers faster and more powerful routes to the implementation of the best possible result to a project. The software today helps not only to produce working drawings and models, but also to document, organize and store information of a complex life cycle. All this design and management support has a major impact, as it requires more complex knowledge of computing programs. An interesting thing to wonder is in what ways our ideas have been influenced or adjust to the rules of the art and the technique. In a world that the design techniques can be animated and provide new transformation procedures, a line can not anymore be just a line and an object has a wide range of different aspects. This technological evolution operates as a generative model that helps us to develop techniques that influence the outcome of the process. Now that we have passed to the other side everything can happen. The reality that exists around us has overcome human's imagination and the forms have become unlimited. The architects discover new ways of seeing and understanding the world, outside its visual definitions. The idea behind a project can't be a result of restrictions, but the creative development using a plenary built environment, which allows considering all the possible configurations in advance. The past and the present are synchronized in an adaptive field where culture and evolution are proportional to their causes. In this way, an idea can be released from the simulated structure and be attributed to concrete and material processes. The relation between an idea and the use of digital media is similar to the experience of driving a car. The idea is the widescreen wiper which allows us to see further and the software is the wheel which helps us to reach our destination, no matter which way we are willing to take. The prescribed nature of these approaches took architectural processes as far as they could, where forms still modulate by slopping the burden of their representation and produce abstract models. By exploring relationships between programs and space, materials and subject, every element of production changes through time, increases complexity and alerts previous states. This participates in the content of modelling understanding of architecture and equips the experimental architect to evolve a dynamic method capable of performing the actual result. This dynamic view of design recognizes that the future is undetermined, that the idea plays a large part and more digital tools unfold as time passes. DIGITAL DESIGN PROCESS : The use of digital design modelling and animation has opened new territories of formal exploration in architecture, in which digitally - generated forms are not designed in conventional ways. Shapes and forms can be transformed into something else easily. With this process we can manage the time of work by avoiding unnecessary drawings, as all the information is in a single model. What kind of programs do we use to achieve that Which are the tools that allow us to create new materials, lighting effects and new techniques EVOLUTION OR CONFUSION : An interesting thing to wonder is in what ways the digital has influenced the very way we invent and think through a project, and if our ideas that come are also to be influenced by the 3d model. Many believe that the buildings used to be simpler, but not now that the digital projects have provoked complex forms. Is this privilege to create complicate buildings making things easier not only for the architect but also for the client What is sure is that the progression from 2d drafts to digital modelling allowed more detailed visualisation of the developing design scheme. Movement in and around digital models revealed structural and constructional issues in relation to building components, that would have remained unresolved. So the first and simplest advantage is to be able to quickly visualise the consequences of model changes without the need for 2d redrawing work. Although the complexity of design increased, the time of production decreased. The architect or the designer becomes the "coordinator of information", as hundreds of different parties involved in a typical design production. 3d-freehand sketches don't reveal all the necessary details, and this is where digital modelling comes into play. What is the role of the client The design brief can be developed with the involvement of the client. 3d models encourage client interaction at earlier stages of the design process. LEARN FROM THE EXPERTS : In this chapter, I am going to analyse the methods that well-known architects like Foster, for example, use to create their buildings. A phenomenon, that happens around as and not only changes the history of architecture but also gives an identity to a place, are the spectacular buildings that rise with proud. After many years of different influences in the field of architecture from many cultures, such as Greek, Roman, Egyptian, a new theory came to shake the balance and it is called digital architecture. A revolution that changed the history and the life style of the 20th century. Through this chapter I will compare the pre-digital and the digital era using examples of important buildings. VIRTUAL REALITY : Virtual Reality has been defined in many different ways. Broadly, virtual reality is a computer-generated world involving one or more human senses and generated in real-time. The user of a VR environment is able to perceive and create at the same time. This means that the viewer can go inside a building, climb stairs or even move objects. In other words the participant descends in a computer-generated world, where the VR environment acts as a substitute for the physical environment. It is quite difficult to point out the very first virtual reality application, although an important impact came with the development of computerized flight simulators. Using projection screens the programmers created models of landscapes and cityscapes, which were generated by the actions of trained pilots. So, flight simulators can be considered as the first example of virtual reality systems, which were funding from the military in an effort to improve training. Today Virtual Reality finds applications in a myriad of fields, like architecture, mechanical and structural engineering, geometry, molecular biology and fluid dynamics. It functions as a problem-solving approach by visualizing a set of numbers and charts into three-dimensional interface. Instead of looking at a problem from outside, the user is provided with better insights of the 3d substantiation. The development in the process of digitalization of design and architecture started with CAD programs, but expanded with the appearance of virtual world. As the two main characteristics of this application is interaction and immersion, the feeling of "being inside" the computer-generated environment, it's not hard to understand why it found correspondence in architecture. In contrast to other 3d objects, like sculptures, that can be manipulated and perceived from their outside, it is essential in architecture the viewer to be inhabited and walked through on its inside. For this reason the comprehension of architecture is not static, but dynamic. The biggest pleasure of an architectural environment is the opportunity to explore different perspectives through an alternation of views. Using any other program the viewer is able to experience the space by following a default path, when Virtual Reality provides the privilege of choice. So VR can be concerned as an extension of other 3d programs. We use a wide range of digital technologies to create three-dimensional models, in a full scale mapping and produce axonometrics and perspectives with minimal human effort. VR makes things easier when our aim is not just to see, but also act. Navigation is the major achievement of exploration for the architectural virtual world. The observer can adapt to the basic action of walking by keeping the viewpoint position to the human's height. Another important factor is the capacity to change the viewpoint position in the x, y and z coordinates, in order to simulate the vertical movement of elevators, ramps and stairs. Virtual Reality world is consisted of both static and dynamic objects. The static nature of elements can change and evolve in the dynamic of in the dynamic of the design process. Openings are cut through, walls are erected and floors change size. In an interactive walk through the scene reaches high levels of realism, because it is produced according to our body movements. At this stage creation aspect seems small in front of the different degrees of complexity and detail. Otherwise, the user will have difficulties to understand and observe an object close enough, when the scene is deficient in quality. To achieve the best possible result there is a number of elements that must be considered. Just like in traditional 3d programs, there are components, like light and texture, which compose and affect the visual impact of a certain space. During a meeting, that the client has to take a decision of the final outcome of the project, it is the interactivity of a VR system which provides the ability to apply different finishes or lighting on a building instantly. As we said before virtual reality involves more than one sense, but only sight, hearing and touch have been used. Human's body becomes a part of the VR experience by influencing the interaction using display systems that collaborate with the application. Three of them differ because of their unique functions. Head-Mounted Display The most popular is the Head-Mounted Display (HMD) that provides a complete immersion of the participant in the virtual world. The main components of an HMD are a display image source and an optical system. Optical system focuses the image on the display device at a few inches from the eyes and at the same time enlarges the field of view. According to the position and orientation of the head, there is a tracking system that displays the image directly, otherwise there will be a sense of disorientation and dizziness can be caused. Binocular Omni-Orientation Monitor Binocular Omni-Orientation Monitor (BOOM) presents much better ergonomics than the HMD. It's still a head worn visual device, but it uses a counter-weighted boom that eliminates weight problems. BOOM is an optimal display and accurate tracking device that vanishes the time delay between head movement and image generation. CAVE The most sophisticated display for VR applications is the Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE). It was developed in 1992 at the NCSA (National Centre of Supercomputing Applications) and consists of a cube shaped theatre. The faces and the floor are projection screens, which provide interaction according to the participant's movements that are tracked with electromagnetic sensors. The viewer wares stereo shutter glasses and is free to walk and move in a large space. All of the above display systems help our vision to understand and explore a virtual scene. But vision is not the only sense that has to be satisfied during a presentation. An essential factor is the sound, which gives identity to a dynamic object. For example, the image of a fountain is half presented if the viewer is not able to hear the water falling. VR systems usually provide a stereophonic sound that comes from several separated sources. Sounds enhance a scene, even if it is physical or virtual, by providing acoustic signals according to the different materials and actions. Although today there are a number of virtual reality systems, they are not employed in the design and production process. The reason is that they are still seen as an experimental technology by the architectural profession. Such systems have proven useful for presenting designs rather than developing them. A major impact would be a virtual reality application that will move explorations further. CONCLUSION : In the final chapter I will offer some thoughts about which direction this may be heading. What is going to be the next step What to expect at the future Without doubt, the boundaries of the architectural design process are blurring. A few years ago, the architects did not have access to three-dimensional models or animation tools. Today all of these are available to everyone. Students are being taught to use these tools as a part of their education. Clients and owners have the freedom to take the situation into their own hands. They can take their three-dimensional rendering package and even have their son or daughter work up a rendering at home. They can play with the 3d model until they like it and then pass it to the architect. These changes have a scary effect on the way we work and the way we interact with each other. Nevertheless, as projects increase in complexity, the knowledge that is required to complete the design also increases. Now that our generation has reached a high level in designing presentations, is there a gap left in computer design In my opinion, we have reached the point where we can enjoy the outcome of the effort of those who worked the digital design so many years ago. One future that we may consider for design is experiencing a space through the filter of 3d design. When we get to the point that someone can go into a room and actually see and feel what is being designed, we will have approached a new era. BIBLIOGRAPHY : Branko Kolarevic, Architecture in the digital age: design and manufacturing, Spon Press, 2003 Peter Szalapaj, Contemporary architecture and the digital design process, Architectural press, 2005 Susannah Hagan, Digitalia: Architecture and the digital, the environmental and the avant-garde Gerhard Schmitt, Information Architecture: Basis and future of CADD, Birkhuser, 1999 Daniela Bertol, Designing digital space: An architect's guide to virtual reality, Willey, 1997 Wei Dong with Kathleen Gibson, Computer Visualization: An integrated approach for interior design and architecture, 1998 Web: Frederick P. Brooks, Jr, What's real about Virtual Reality, University of North Carolina, http://www.cs.unc.edu/brooks/WhatsReal.pdf Grigore C. Burdea and Philippe Coiffet, Virtual Reality Technology, By Wiley-IEEE, 2003 William R. Sherman and Alan B. Craig, Understanding Virtual Reality: Interface, Application and Design, By Morgan Kaufmann, 2003 Read More