Middle Eastern Female Contemporary Artists - Essay Example

Running Head: MIDDLE EASTERN FEMALE CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS Middle Eastern Female Contemporary Artists [Institution's Name] Middle Eastern Female Contemporary Artists Introduction Artistic expression has been part of the human condition at all times and in all places. As with language, art is a species-centered activity. In the conventions of Euroamerican culture, the arts have become disassociated from the stream of life as artistic creation has increasingly become the function of the specialist. In our definition of art we differentiate "pure" from "folk" art, "fine arts" from "crafts." Such distinctions impede the understanding of arts as a basic expression of experience. Art of the Arab world permeates all ways of life in every country. The living tradition of folk art is seen in the embroidered clothing of brightly draped village women, the Ramadan festival of lights, rug making, pottery decorations, personal adornment and even the designs on food prepared to celebrate religious rituals and events. Elements of the theater arts are evident in marriage ceremonials, funeral practices and performances of traditional music. (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) Arab Female Contemporary Art Arab artists draw inspiration from the vestiges of the region's ancient cultures, combining older iconography with new insights to create fresh artistic expressions. This fusion of elements is evident in the works of several artists who have been influenced by the ancient symbols of Mesopotamia and the rich imagery of Coptic art. Sawsan Amer's works on glass, for instance, combine traditional iconography with personal imagery, mixing the direct frontality of Coptic icons with representations of birds, both real and imagined. (McEvilley, 2007, 19-21) Another artist who joins ancient and contemporary references is Liliane Karnouk from Egypt. "My paintings are in search of a definite cultural union," says the artists. "I belong to a generation trapped between Western and Oriental values." She expresses her search for union by combining tree bark from Canada and the papyrus paper from Egypt in installations such as Black and Green, 1992 (Amirsadeghi, Mikdadi & Shabout, 2009, 167-1853). This work expresses her helpless outrage at the senseless violence of the Gulf War. The black paperworks represent an initial outlet for her mourning for the human and environmental victims of the conflict. The large spatial canvases were conceived as a visual requiem. The tree bark and green seedlings emerge as a source of renewal. The art of Effat Nagui, a 92-year-old Egyptian artist "who lives in history," draws upon the ancient cultures of northern Africa. One of the pioneers of modern art in Egypt, Nagui was the first woman artist to have a work acquired by the Museum of Modern Art in Cairo, in 1928. Her mixed media works like Icon of the Nile. 1991 (Amirsadeghi, Mikdadi & Shabout, 2009, 167-185) unite concentric circles and the venerable outline of the mummy with remnants of Coptic parchment and crocodile skins to create contemporary images that utilize the magic of antiquity. As Nagui says: "Sometimes the artist needs to use materials and forms from ancient folk art so that he may touch the invisible bases which erected original art. Art is the result of assimilated and inherited culture." (Madkour, 2006, 19-21) Nagui's wooden sculptured surfaces, influenced by Nubian architecture, testify to the dynamic and symbolic roles of art forms. These and other contemporary Arab artists draw inspiration from the past. The Arab East has seen a succession of major civilizations, each creating its own art forms. This is precisely what civilizations are about--creative, centripetal power which fuses old elements with new ideas, giving birth to original and specific new expression. (McEvilley, 2007, 19-21) The Art of Politics The Arab East has been a battleground in the 19th and 20th centuries. War has been a critical feature of recent history in the region, and wars, per se, create turmoil in a society, accelerating the normal processes of change. Over the past hundred years Arab women have harnessed aspects of the cultural change, transforming their homelands with different degrees of commitment and support. The French occupation of Egypt in the early part of the 19th century marked a pivotal phase of European influence on the arts of the region. It also initiated to tense dialogue between the West and the East, its tension reflected in the continuing struggle over the region's heritage, the "authenticity" of its arts and its artistic integrity. Todd Potterfield notes that, for Western artists, the Orientalist subject matter often offered easy success as well as new stimuli.4 Arab artists, however, found themselves in the middle of the conflicts between the national and international, or even transnational, aspects of art. The 1919 revolution in Egypt not only fostered a greater sense of nationalism but increased the momentum of the feminist movement developing there since the 1870s. World War I and the fight against colonialism favored the creation of feminist initiatives, such as Huda Sha'rawi's in Egypt, throughout the Middle East. A leading feminist of her time, Sha'rawi (ca. 1878-1947) arrived in Cairo from a women's conference in Rome in 1923 and removed her veil at the train station. Just as women led demonstrations, wrote petitions and organized social services that were of vital importance to the impoverished population under British occupation in Egypt [missing fragment from a facsimile transmission error], they Arab countries struggling against colonialism. World War II stimulated comparable social reactions, and both wars created the need for new labor forces. (Mikhail, 2009, 113-124) During and after the wars women in major cities began working outside the home in offices and factories. Historically, women in the Arab world have worked in agriculture, textiles, carpet weaving and other regional crafts. The opening of schools for women allowed them access to higher education and to public office. Women entered schools of medicine and law, professions which, until the, had been the preserve of men. Women also entered, gradually, and then forcefully, the contemporary art scene. (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) The art field was one of the first "public jobs" held by women in Egypt, and by the mid- 1930s women were active members of the country's modern art movement. Their work had a strong social content. Egyptian artists turned to their national heritage for inspiration. Their art included pharaonic symbols and depictions of peasant life. Colonialism, wars, universities established by foreign missions, the cinema and, more recently, the mass media all have affected the cultural models and values of the Middle East. At places, such as Syria, the impact has been refused to accept. In countries like Lebanon the new models and values have been completely absorbed, becoming nearly indigenous. This has been the process of "modernization." (McEvilley, 2007, 19-21) Over the past two centuries Arabs have been subjugated by foreign rule, a state of affairs that in certain circumstances stimulated Arab self-identity and others led to subordination and acquiescence. Later, as Arab nationalist feelings peaked under Gamal Abdel Nasser and during the Arab-Israeli wars, Arabs increasingly became participants in events that concerned their physical and cultural survival. This participation accelerated the formation of a national consciousness which mobilized them to every level. This consciousness also functioned as a catalyst for the artists. (Rizvi, Al Sabah, Fehervari & Rizvi, 2005, 34-48) One of the first abstract artists in Lebanon and one of the best sculptors in the Arab world is Saloua Raouda Choucair.7 She recalls that her early commitment to art began as a challenge to her philosophy professor at the American University of Beirut. "He stated that....Arabic art is a decorative art of a lower degree, far from being pure art, because the Arabs were not inspired by the nude." Thereupon, Choucair began a lifelong study of Islamic art, exploring its geometry of form and color. Armed with a natural talent for mathematics and physics, along with determination and an inquiring mind, Choucair developed her own abstract style of interlocking shapes as she pursued her research into Islamic art. Through art she was searching for a unity between the spirit of God and her spirit as an artist, the two in one (Lloyd, 2006, 110-124). Looking around her she saw this spirit of oneness, unity and infinite repetitiveness in the architecture of the Islamic world. She developed her abstract forms entirely on her own and was surprised, therefore, to find that other artists were working in abstraction when she traveled to Paris in 1948. "I was very excited because there were people there who could understand what I was doing." (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) Nearly fifty years after her exploration of the abstract elements of Islamic art began, Choucair continues to work in the same studio in Beirut using a variety of media--wood, plastic, Plexiglas, metal and stone. She constantly experiments with new materials to create modular forms (some of which are kinetic) that have mathematical precision. Choucair describes her art as "a form embracing the spirit of Arabesque designs, with their mathematically calculated patterns." She also gains inspiration from Arabic poetry, "which concentrates on the possibility of form." (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) As the turmoil increased in the region following World War II, women artists began to create more overtly political work. Internal conflicts in Egypt and the rest of the Arab world challenged artists like Inji Efflatoun. A Marxist, she advocated restructuring what she saw as the master-slave relationship between landowners and peasants to alternate poverty among the peasant class. Her agenda far outdistanced the achievements of Nasser's socialist program. The four years she spent imprisoned because of her political beliefs provided the foundation for a number of paintings. The euphoria or national liberation in much of the Arab world following World War II gave away before the difficulties each country faced in dealing with many problems simultaneously. Some problems had their seeds in the colonial era and other resulted from the process of modernization. Newly independent countries all over the Middle East struggled to provide basic services in education, health and housing to rapidly growing populations; ensure employment; define the rights and duties of their citizens; and mold the role of women in a manner consonant with the concept of equality outlined in the United Nations Charter. In addition, they attempted to accomplish all of these political and social goals while preserving their own ancient and valuable traditions. (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) The conflict over Palestine, which has led to five wars between Israel and the Arab countries since 1948, added another dimension to the Arab struggle for development, directly affecting the progress of the countries involved. The extent to which these social issues have remained unresolved has sharpened the conflicts during the second half of this century. (Mikhail, 2009, 113-124) Such unresolved social problems engendered protests and stimulated art. Kamala Ibrahim from Sudan draws attention to social inequities through exaggeration and distortion of female figure (Amirsadeghi, Mikdadi & Shabout, 2009, 167-1851). Layla Muraywid from Syria, working with layers of handmade paper, earth, cloth, pastel and other mixed media, creates ancient icons in reverence of nature (Lloyd, 2006, 110-124). "Life is an accumulation of experience," she says. "Just like my work is a layering of different media, it's never finished." Others, more willing to accept the breakdown of their familiar world, have mastered the art of rehabilitative expression. Baya Mahieddine, steeped in the conflicts of the Algerian Revolution, is simultaneously traditional and transgressive in her work. Filled with bountiful gardens, songbirds, blossoming jasmine and dancing women who are both playful and nurturing, her arts combines history and fantasy (Cahan and Kocur, 2006, 17-1281). Her treatment of women links us with the world of pleasure, depicting a freedom that defies patriarchy and Orientalism. The art of Mounirah Mosly from Saudi Arabia offers the contemplation of high color and gestural energy. Her moral May You One Day Heard the Crying of a Window Being into the World (Lloyd, 2006, 110-124). The artist says it is "meant to reflect a woman's world, memories and vision. The materials were dealt with in a way that empowers them with the strengths of history, geography and the human condition." Mosly says that her approach is like assembling a narrative or composing a sonata. The "chapters" of the narrative also have: 1) the net--a place of complete withdraw which explains our dynamic inner lives, a place of dreams, nightmares and the pervasive unconscious; 2) childhood, which accounts a private story by utilizing conventional inks and homemade herbal pigments; 3) the window and the eye which looks through it into the world; and 4) the city, its livelihood, history and archaeology. (Rizvi, Al Sabah, Fehervari & Rizvi, 2005, 34-48) Shocked by the intensification of the war in Lebanon and the atrocities to which Palestinians were being subjected, Mona Hatoum, a Palestinian artist from a refugee camp in Lebanon, moved from artist/onlooker to participant. She was drawn into performance art, which became a metaphor for the suffering and struggle of oppressed peoples everywhere. Her art is involved the political use of binary opposites, contrasting order and chaos, oppression and resistance as part of a closed system (Cahan and Kocur, 2006, 17-1286). She is a synthesizer of ideas in three-dimensional form. One figure's fall gives rise to another, and vice-versa, revealing the two sides of the same reality; victor/victim, strength/weakness, uniformed/naked. (Rizvi, Al Sabah, Fehervari & Rizvi, 2005, 34-48) The Art of Exile Internal conflicts related to the colonial wars in Lebanon led to civil war in 1975, forcing a large number of artists to live in exile. Ginane Makki Bacho reluctantly left Lebanon in 1984. She describes herself as a storyteller caught between reality and a dream world. Bacho's photographic prints recreate images taken from a diary she kept while she was a "prisoner" of the civil war in Beirut. These experiences have inspired in her the activity of a creator, not the passivity of a mirror (frontispiece). Arriving in New York, Bacho faced continuing social upheavals as she confronted the myths and realities of the New World. She recorded these new experiences as well. Bacho used photography to create a double image of life in Lebanon and life in New York, conveying her experience for being imprisoned in Lebanese shelters during bombing raids and her anguish for a molested child in New York, who is imprisoned in other ways. Consider their residency in their respective host countries temporary, something that will last only "until the war is over." Artists seem to visit "home" more often than other professionals, however, continuing to find their inspiration in the Arab world. One Palestinian artist was exiled four times. When we finally contacted her, she refused to loan her artwork. As she explained, she could not part with the few paintings she had been able to preserve, referring to them as "her life." (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) The same intensity is found in the work and words of Jumana el-Husseini (Karnouk 2008, 245-266). A Palestinian living in Paris, she frequently visit her home in Jericho, where her children cannot go because they carry Saudi Arabian passports. Following an exhibition in Jordan she was asked why she had stopped painting Jerusalem. She answered: "I haven't stopped painting; I'm still painting in Jerusalem.....Before I was painting the house, the people, the scenes of Jerusalem.....To me it's like the archaeologist who's brushing the layers of sand each day and he can find from the days past, from our ancestors. So this really gives me hope...I go back to the earth to see what we had in the past....to give me energy, feeling for living." (McEvilley, 2007, 19-21) At another time, when el-Husseini was beginning to create abstract art, she observed, "I'm writing a letter, a letter to our mother who's dead and buried in Jerusalem.....This also gives me a connection between life and death, between the living and the dead." El-Husseini incorporates the use of sand in her abstract work. She often gets a feel that there is some force and strength in abstraction. Although her work has evolved from realistic to geometric and abstract styles, el-Husseini has noted that she always paints the same theme-the Arab world and her childhood in Palestine. (Mikhail, 2009, 113-124) When Arabs gather, they always talk about passport. El-Husseini, for instance, comments that when she had an Iraqi passport she could not travel anywhere. Her observations on passports, in her art and words, reveal another level of Arab reality. "From far away you look at this painting and its looks beautiful. And then you look closer and you see the passport and the visas, and you see the ugliness of reality...From a distance, you don't see it, it's only when you come close. You come to look at it and it disturbs you. At the same time, I want it to be pleasing from a distance." (Madkour, 2006, 19-21) Several artists were greatly moved by gulf wars of the 1980s and 1990s---a senseless destruction of human life and of thriving urban and rural centers. They were also overwhelmed by the outburst of anti-Arab sentiment that surrounded them in the West, sensing at the same time that their hopes of returning home had diminished. These feelings found their way into their art. It is interesting to note the gradual development in Ghada Jamal's art from watercolors depicting the poetic serenity of the Lebanese landscape to gouache and oil renditions of the terror of the Lebanese conflict and brutality of the recent Gulf War. Her Cloud Burst series (Foster & Krauss, 2005, 15-1340) consists of aerial landscapes which refer to the early stages of the war, when the blue skies of Iraq were invaded by high-technology warplanes. Circles, arrows and squares make their layered, earthy patinas, alluding to the charts used for precision bombing. Her abstract landscapes In the Storm echo the intensity of violence. The final series, After the Rains, reveals the aftermath of war. Leila Kawash, an Iraqi artist, also speaks of archaeology (Foster & Krauss, 2005, 15-1341). "Arabs...have the advantage to looking way back. We have a very, very strong identity (and feeling of) who we are." Kawash says she explored the early Mesopotamian civilizations "to find something that I'm proud of. I work on layers...I like the archaeology of our land; it's rich, lots of cultures." Her art was affected by the Gulf War as well. "During the war with Iraq...when Americans hit on this shelter (with) a lot of children, and they all ran out and one of them called out "Allah el Akbar" (God is great). And I was painting this painting and when I went back to it, these words, it was like he gathered all the strength-it was like he was combating the whole word with these two words.....I spray painted these words and it obliterated all the gold that I was putting on before." The Dialogue of Occupation Growing up during the days of the Algerian Revolution which ended French colonialism. Houria Niati remembers being taken to prison for writing anti-colonial slogans on walls at the age of twelve. This incident led Niati to pursue her work confronting Western Orientalism fifteen years later. Niati states that she started her series No to Torture (Cahan and Kocur, 2006, 17-1289 and 30) "because I was dealing with anger." Explaining further she adds: "Women in Algeria were fighting and dying. They were tortured. Western nations of the Oriental imagined a fantasy world of women. Delacroix's Arab women were partially naked. His paintings of these images were utilized for many purposes. Behind his painting (the) suffering, torture, repression, unhappiness and even spiritual happiness was not pictured. Then I started meeting artists around the world painting the same things." Niati lives and works in London. She remembers that, on visiting her first art exhibition in London, she noticed that women were not represented and realized that women's issues were universal. Laila al-Shawa from Gaza records the harsh realities of Israeli-Palestinian confrontation (Foster & Krauss, 2005, 15-1342). In an echo of Niati's Algerian struggle, she photographed the graffiti on the walls of Gaza as it appeared before it was obscured by the paint brushes wielded by Israel's occupation army, and the large dollar signs which they used to cover such public expressions. Once the photographs were silk-screened onto canvas, the superimposed geometric designs on them, trying to evoke a sense of order and accentuate the messages. As the basis for other works, she photographed the map of Palestine which had been drawn in red on the sides of cement-filled barricades, confirming an identity which may also seem like a prison to her. Hundreds of such barricades surround the streets of Gaza to prevent the stone-throwing children from escaping. Speaking for her work al-Shawa says, "I recorded a method of communication and punishments which have been sanctified by the 'civilized world.'.......I have to criticize what is around me through my painting. I don't believe in painting butterflies and flowers and pretty things." Al-Shawa also speaks of the terrible feeling that exists in the Arab world about the West, "a power that is trying to destroy you without ever trying to understand what you are about. Understand that you're a very old culture-that you're a people from a great civilization, that your roots go back thousands of years." (Rizvi, Al Sabah, Fehervari & Rizvi, 2005, 34-48) Appreciation Arab Art It is important not to confuse Arab art with Islamic art. Although Islamic art is still very much alive and is practiced by several artists, it is not the sole basis for contemporary Arab art. Arab artists today draw from an accumulation of sources, the art of Islam being only one of them. Among their many influences are prehistoric art and the art of ancient cultures that developed throughout the Arab world-Egyptian, Sumerian, Byzantine, African. An Arab today is a citizen of one of twenty states in the Near East and North Africa. Arabs share a history, culture and language. However, the Arab world is diverse, encompassing many ethnic groups, sects, and cultural traits. In addition, the development of contemporary Arab art must be understood within the context of cultural changes taking place for over two centuries. (Rizvi, Al Sabah, Fehervari & Rizvi, 2005, 34-48) At least until the 1960s, Western art was considered a fixed paradigm for art in the Arab world. Even within Western art, however, only some artistic currents were privileged. For example, during the middle years of this century abstract Eurocentric art was considered to be the norm, and all other styles and expressions were considered marginal or dismissed categorically. (Mikhail, 2009, 113-124) This situation has changed. The postmodern art of today results from the dislocation of the artistic centers of reference that have held sway for decades in the capitals of the West and the emergence of a multiplicity of centers all over the world. This has led to a restructuring of all pre-1960s concepts, trends, images and styles. What has resulted is the emergence of individual artists working on a global scene. Arab art often offers few visual clues to its "Arab-ness," partly because the reality of life in the Arab world does not fit preconceptions. For instance, the skyscraper is now a prominent feature of Kuwaiti skyline. In fact, no major Arab cities nowadays present a cityscape dominated by minarets and domes. Most, if not all, Arab cities, unfortunately, are more "modern" than many European cities which have maintained their ancient monuments and neighborhoods intact. (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) For example, Paris is more old-fashioned than Cairo and Damascus, due to the efficiency of colonial urban planners who wished to wipe out the old features of the Arab world. The visual environments surrounding Arab artists present enormous diversity and contrast, which is reflected in the works we see. The violence wrought by the force of change-military, political, cultural-affecting these artists also may be traced in their work, which encompasses not only painting and sculpture but also computer art, performance art, video, collage and more. New ideas, new tools and new forms-we are witnessing the birth of a new age. (Karnouk 2008, 245-266) The Arab fascination with abstract forms has a significance of the world. To the Arab, geometric and abstract forms represent the best way to signify infinity through the conversion of form into pattern. One must be impressed with the fine aesthetics of the geometric designs decorating interiors of village homes in the mountains of Algeria, the exquisite carpets made by Bedouin women in Kuwait and the embroidered patterns of Syrian costumes. Abstract forms have been incorporated into the modern art movements of Arab countries both in a traditional manner-for their decorative effect-and as a means of advancing nationalistic art. During the 1920s the nationalist art movement in Egypt used a symbol called the fellaha (peasant women) to present the female in Egyptian art. This abstraction incorporated two key concepts, creating a multiplicity of direct and indirect associations; woman (strength and nurturing) and peasant (land and nationalism). (Mikhail, 2009, 113-124) Nowhere has the painted word been used so thoroughly and creatively, both as a link to the past and as a break with that past, as in the Arab world. While some recent Western movements, such as conceptual art, have shown a strong interest in the philosophical and cultural connection between words and images, there has been little artistic emphasis placed on the decorative possibilities of the words themselves, or their visual connection with the past. The use of script, letters or written words, painted on canvases either for their calligraphic value or as integrated figures within a larger surface is, therefore, distinctive contribution Arab artists have made to contemporary art. Madiha Umar from Iraq was the first Arab artist to use the Arabic letters is abstract from in 1945. She describes her work as an attempt to free the Arabic letter from its bondage, imprisoned within geometric designs, where it serves simply to fill the space. For Umar the letter, like nature, is beautiful in itself. Unlike the calligraphers who intended to show the beauty of the Arabic word. Umar restricted herself to the beauty of the letter. (Yousef & Umar, 2009, 98-110) The word is a very charged symbol in Semitic religions, including Christianity. Islamic culture formalized the word through the writing of the Qur'an. Some Arab artists use the word as a reference to the spiritual world of Islam, but others are using their own spontaneous handwriting more frequently today in their art to make a secular statement. For instance, Khulood Da'mi from Iraq incorporates poetry in her pottery (Foster & Krauss, 2005, 15-1344). Perhaps no culture has such a fundamental involvement with the written word as Arab culture. The Importance of Cross-Influences Influences have no boundaries and are not one-directional. Art is a domain in which it is easy to demonstrate that, although Western values have left their imprint on other cultures, other cultures have also become part of the fabric of the Western world. The influence we speak of is ongoing. (Yousef & Umar, 2009, 98-110) Many prominent European painters-Eugene Delacroix, Henry Matisse, Paul Klee, Franz Marc, August Macke and Wassily Kandinsky, to name a few-discovered a new aesthetic and a new direction for their work through contact with North Africa. A more current example is Jean Dubuffet's sculptured architectural ensemble created at Prigne called La Closerie Falballas. By Dubuffet's own admission we know that the architecture of Mzaab, a Saharan oasis city in southern Algeria, was a major inspiration for this extraordinary artist. The impact of Oriental arts in general, and of Arabic traditions in particular, continues in the arts today. Conclusion This exhibition of Arab women artists demonstrates that women have become a creative force in the arts. They also become a creative force in other realms by virtue of their ability to communicate so much that others wish to say but cannot. Many of the pressing issues affecting them resemble women's concerns elsewhere (Yousef & Umar, 2009, 98-110). The strength of their art, however, resides in the facts that it is local-part of their immediate cultural sphere-and also global in its attention to injustice, social inquiries, pollution and spirituality. Arab women artists are living in different countries while undergoing similar experiences-political, social, religious and economic. References Amirsadeghi, Hossein; Mikdadi, Salwa and Nada M. Shabout. 2009. New Vision: Arab Contemporary Art in the 21st Century. Thames & Hudson Ltd, pp: 167-185. Cahan, Susan and Zoya Kocur. 2006. Contemporary Art and Multicultural Education. Routledge; 3rd edition, pp: 17-128. Foster, Hal & Rosalind Krauss. 2005. Art since 1900: Modernism, Antimodernism, Postmodernism. Thames & Hudson, pp: 15-134. Karnouk, Liliane. 2008. Modern Egyptian Art: The Emergence of a National Style. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, pp: 245-266. Lloyd, Fran. 2006. Contemporary Arab Women's Art: Dialogues of the Present. Women's Art Library, pp: 110-124. Madkour, Nazli. 2006. Women and Art in Egypt. Cairo: State Information Service Press, pp: 19-21 McEvilley, Thomas. 2007. Marginialia: Thomas McEvilley on the Global Issue. Artforum Magazine, Vol. 28, pp: 19-21. Mikhail, Mona. 2009. Images of Arab Women-Fact and Fiction: Essays. Washington, Three Continents Press, pp: 113-124 Rizvi, Sajid; Al Sabah, Lulu M. Fehervari, Geza and Shirley Joseph Rizvi. 2005. Art and Artists in Kuwait: A Special Presentation in Eastern Art Report. Saffron Books, pp: 34-48. Yousef, Farouq & Madiha Umar. 2009. Calligraphy, trans. Hind Kadry-Mathews. Baghdad: University of Literature and Art, Baghdad, pp: 98-110. Read More