Linguists Views on the Subject - Coursework Example

College name Programme name Course name Course code Task title Academic year-Semester 1 Introduction Linguists’ divergent views on the subject are manifest in the multiple terms they use to refer to it: grammatical subject, notional subject, logical subject, psychological subject, semantic subject, referential subject, pronominal subject, expletive subject and dummy subject among other references. The emergence different views and terminology on Subject can be traced to the second half of the 19th century with the work of von der Gabelentz (1868: 376) and Paul (1880:1) who first used the term psychological subject. The more recent linguists like Chao (1968: 78) call the same thing the logical subject while Quirk et al (1990: 426) calls it the notional subject. Divergence in perspective by formal and functional grammarians is reflected on the meaning and usage of Subject. This paper accounts for some of these differences and finally suggests the most the agreeable usage. 2 Formal Grammars and the Subject Linguist who analyze sentence structures have several explanation for ascribing parts of sentences as Subjects. The criteria for defining Subject with respect to form and structure include the constituent parts of a sentence, sentential/clausal elements and realization of Subject. 2.1 Sentence constituents The term subject is widely used in reference to sentence constituents. The concept of the subject in this sense brings about grammatical completeness and not necessarily a textual one (Quirk et al 1990:12). The initial words in the following sentences are subjects. She is coming over. [2] He looks quite interested. [3] You should not have done such a thing. [4] The meaning of these sentences cannot be complete until we have an idea of who ‘she’ and ‘he’ are in [2] and [3] respectively. The texts may not be fully comprehended unless we know where ‘she is coming to,’ what ‘he looks quite interested in’ or what has been done by ‘you’. None the less, the three sentences are valid in the sense of grammatical completeness. In this sense, the subject ‘she’ and the predicate ‘is coming over’ are considered as the basic sentence constituents that make up a sentence (Langan 2008:450, Quirk et al 1990:13). 2.2 Elements of the sentence structure Closely related to the concept of sentence constituents is the one of sentence elements. Quirk et al (1990:13) identify subjects, verbs, objects, adverbials and complements as sentential elements. The term element here refers to what sentence constituents (subject and predicate) are made of. Elements are found at a deeper structural level of parsing than the subject/predicate dichotomy. The two levels of deconstruction of a sentence can be illustrated thus: The mother must have seen her son. [5] Constituents: Sentence Subject, Predicate (the mother/ must have seen the son) [5a] Elements: Sentence Subject, Verb, Object (the mother/must have seen/the son] [5b] Example [5b] further deconstructs the predicate in [5a] into Verb and Object. It is interesting; however, that even at the second level of sentence parsing as in [5b], grammarians replace the term predicate with its elements while the term subject is maintained. It can be a rich source for confusion that the subject is both a sentence constituent and an element. This can be shown as follows: Sentence Subject Predicate Subject Verb Object the mother must have seen her son Quirk et al (15) refers to the concept of clause constituents to explain that at the second level of parsing we are dealing with a clause and not a sentence. In summary, the subject is both a sentential and clausal entity. 2.3 Realization of the subject Langas (2008:449) defines the subject as the noun or pronoun on which the rest of sentence is about. Typically, the subject (S) is realized by the noun phrase as shown in the following two examples: One of my favorite pastimes (S) has been banned. [6] She (S) amuses everyone. [7] Defining the subject in this way may not be sustainable because of the other ways in which it is realized. Adjectival adverbial phrases do also function as subjects as in [8] and [9] respectively. The rich (S) live with the poor. [8] Here (S) comes the clown. [9] The subject can also be realized by nominal clauses. The subject in examples [6] and [7] above can be replaced by a clause thus: One of the pastimes I enjoy a lot (S) has been banned [6a] The way she plays the violin (S) amuses everyone. [7a] It can be concluded that using Subject to refer to the noun or pronoun the sentence talks about doesn’t apply always. 3 Functional grammars and Subject Focus on Subject can be made in reference to its functions in conveying thematic as opposed to syntactic roles in the sentence. In this sense, Subject derives its meaning as an agent, instrument or causer. In conceiving ideational and experiential meanings, Subject may be describe in terms of theme or focus. 3.1 Agent, instrument and causer As agents, instruments or causers, Subject conveys a textual meaning. An instrument is the entity with which something happens, the agent is an animate force that causes or instigates something while the causer is an inanimate instigator (Alexiadou and Schafer 40, Quirk et al 196). Consider the following: Maria (S) scared the cat. (agent) [10] The car (S) scared the cat. (instrument) [11] The storm (S) scared the cat. (causer) [12] These thematic subjects coincide with the grammatical subjects earlier discussed. The instrumentality in [11] is clear when the sentence is expanded as follows: Maria scared the cat with the car (instrument) [11a] The agentive, instrumental and causative functions are marked in the passive sentences by the prepositions by and with that precede the Subjects as indicated below. The cat was scared by Maria. (agent) [10b] The cat was scared with the car. (instrument) [11b] The cat was scared by the storm. (causer) [12b] From these sentences, the distinction between thematic and grammatical subjects is very clear. While ‘Maria’, ‘the car’ and ‘the storm’ constitute the thematic subject (TS), ‘the cat’ is the grammatical subject (GS) in all the sentences. The sentences can hence be analyzed using the two criteria as shown below. The cat (GS) was scared by Maria (TS). [10c] The cat (GS) was scared with the car (TS). [11c] The cat (GS) was scared by the storm (TS). [12c] Given that different linguistic approaches to the analysis of the same sentence ascribe Subject to different parts of the sentence means that consensus lacks as far as it concerns the concept of Subject. 3.3 Theme Quirk et al (1990:397) define theme as the first part of any structure in the context of information (ideational) processing. Functional linguists make distinctions between theme/rheme and focus; topic/comment; and given/new information. Wherever such distinctions are made, theme, topic, or given information usually corresponds to Subject while rheme, focus, comment and new information refer to the other sentence constituents. Theme (T) closely conflates with the grammatical Subject. The following examples illustrate this point. The pursuit of happiness (T) has led many to suffering and death. [13] Pluralism or dualism (T) intrigues many scholars. [14] Incidentally, Nelson Mandela (T) is iconic. [15] In examples [13] and [14] theme (T) exactly corresponds to the grammatical subject in terms of constituency and realization. Example [15] conflates with the grammatical subject only in position but it contains both the adverbial (A) and Subject. Its grammatical analysis appears as follows: Incidentally (A), Nelson Mandela (S) is iconic. [15a] Halliday and Matthiessen (2004:328) observe that themes are basically realized as nominal groups. Again this holds for [13] and [14] which are realized as nominal groups (noun phrases) while theme in [15] comprises both an adverbial and a noun phrase. The interchangeable usage of Subject and theme may be controversial given that non-subject entities may also be brought to sentence initial as given in these examples: Tomas (T) is lazy but wakes up early [16] Although he wakes up early (T), Tomas is lazy. [16a] Lazy though he is (T), Tomas wakes up early. [16b] The examples (16a) and (16b) have marked themes with the last one being more marked. By making the predicate the theme the new information about Tomas becomes the topic/given while the shared information is given focus. Marking themes in utterances also shifts incongruent entities to the Subject position. 3.4 Dummy subjects: it and there It and there are at times used as subjects to fill up the position of the given information when the given information (theme) has been moved to a later time. In such cases it, for example, is used as an anticipatory subject (Quirk et al 1990:417). I (S) will to marry [17] It (S) is I who will marry [17a] People (S) say that Alice will relocate to Zimbabwe. [18] It (S) is said that Alice will relocate to Zimbabwe. [18a] It is obvious that Subject marked by it has no other grammatical, thematic or ideational function apart from holding the place of Subject in anticipation of the actual theme of the sentence. The same can be said for there when it plays the role of a dummy subject as seen in the following constructions: I (S) forgot something on the bus. [19] There (S) is something I forgot on the bus. [19a] No one(S) was injured. [20] There (S) was no one injured. [20a] 4 Discussions and Conclusions Linguists find different usage for the term subject on the basis of their theoretical approach. While structuralism and formalism encourage the application of Subject to the sentence structures like Subject Verb Object (SVO) and its realization usually by the nominal group, functionalists view Subject in terms semantic and ideational meaning like agent, instrument, causer and theme. In my opinion, this second usage of Subject, though understandable, is quite complex. The grammatical usage of the term to refer to the sentence constituents, the clausal element and the way it is realized is clear and unambiguous hence preferred. References Alexiadou A & Schäfer F. Proceedings of the 25th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, (eds.) Donald Baumer, David Montero, and Michael Scanlon, Somerville. 2006. MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. 40-48. Chao, Y. R. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley: University of California Press Halliday MAK & Mathiessen CMIM. An Introduction to Functional Grammar (3rd Ed.), 2004. London: Hodder and Stoughton Educational. Langan J. College Writing Skills with Readings (7th Ed.) 2008. New York: McGraw-Hill. Paul, H. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. 1880. Tubingen: Niemeyer. Quirk R, Greenbaum S., Leech G. and Svartvik J. A Student’s Grammar of the English Language. 1990. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. von der Gabelenz, G. Ideen zur einer vergleichenden Syntax: Wort-und Satzstellung. Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. 1868. 6:376-384. Read More

Elements are found at a deeper structural level of parsing than the subject/predicate dichotomy. The two levels of deconstruction of a sentence can be illustrated thus: The mother must have seen her son. [5] Constituents: Sentence Subject, Predicate (the mother/ must have seen the son) [5a] Elements: Sentence Subject, Verb, Object (the mother/must have seen/the son] [5b] Example [5b] further deconstructs the predicate in [5a] into Verb and Object. It is interesting; however, that even at the second level of sentence parsing as in [5b], grammarians replace the term predicate with its elements while the term subject is maintained.

It can be a rich source for confusion that the subject is both a sentence constituent and an element. This can be shown as follows: Sentence Subject Predicate Subject Verb Object the mother must have seen her son Quirk et al (15) refers to the concept of clause constituents to explain that at the second level of parsing we are dealing with a clause and not a sentence. In summary, the subject is both a sentential and clausal entity. 2.3 Realization of the subject Langas (2008:449) defines the subject as the noun or pronoun on which the rest of sentence is about.

Typically, the subject (S) is realized by the noun phrase as shown in the following two examples: One of my favorite pastimes (S) has been banned. [6] She (S) amuses everyone. [7] Defining the subject in this way may not be sustainable because of the other ways in which it is realized. Adjectival adverbial phrases do also function as subjects as in [8] and [9] respectively. The rich (S) live with the poor. [8] Here (S) comes the clown. [9] The subject can also be realized by nominal clauses.

The subject in examples [6] and [7] above can be replaced by a clause thus: One of the pastimes I enjoy a lot (S) has been banned [6a] The way she plays the violin (S) amuses everyone. [7a] It can be concluded that using Subject to refer to the noun or pronoun the sentence talks about doesn’t apply always. 3 Functional grammars and Subject Focus on Subject can be made in reference to its functions in conveying thematic as opposed to syntactic roles in the sentence. In this sense, Subject derives its meaning as an agent, instrument or causer.

In conceiving ideational and experiential meanings, Subject may be describe in terms of theme or focus. 3.1 Agent, instrument and causer As agents, instruments or causers, Subject conveys a textual meaning. An instrument is the entity with which something happens, the agent is an animate force that causes or instigates something while the causer is an inanimate instigator (Alexiadou and Schafer 40, Quirk et al 196). Consider the following: Maria (S) scared the cat. (agent) [10] The car (S) scared the cat.

(instrument) [11] The storm (S) scared the cat. (causer) [12] These thematic subjects coincide with the grammatical subjects earlier discussed. The instrumentality in [11] is clear when the sentence is expanded as follows: Maria scared the cat with the car (instrument) [11a] The agentive, instrumental and causative functions are marked in the passive sentences by the prepositions by and with that precede the Subjects as indicated below. The cat was scared by Maria. (agent) [10b] The cat was scared with the car.

(instrument) [11b] The cat was scared by the storm. (causer) [12b] From these sentences, the distinction between thematic and grammatical subjects is very clear. While ‘Maria’, ‘the car’ and ‘the storm’ constitute the thematic subject (TS), ‘the cat’ is the grammatical subject (GS) in all the sentences. The sentences can hence be analyzed using the two criteria as shown below. The cat (GS) was scared by Maria (TS). [10c] The cat (GS) was scared with the car (TS).

[11c] The cat (GS) was scared by the storm (TS). [12c] Given that different linguistic approaches to the analysis of the same sentence ascribe Subject to different parts of the sentence means that consensus lacks as far as it concerns the concept of Subject. 3.

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