Climate Change and Hydraulic Impacts on Water Networks Supply - Literature review Example

Climate change and hydraulic impacts on water networks supply – Literature Review Table of contents Introduction 3 2. Climate change and hydraulic impacts on water networks supply – Literature Review 3 2.1 Parameters of climate change and their hydraulic impacts on water networks supply. 3 2.2 Data related to climate change parameters on water networks. 6 2.3 Effect of Climate Change on the Future of Water Availability and water demand. 8 2.4 Impacts of climate Change and hydraulic Impact on water networks Pipes Material (DI, PVC, HDPE...) 10 2.5 Recommendation of a possible solution to reduce the impacts of climate change on water networks. 13 3. Conclusion 14 References 15 1. Introduction One of the most important characteristics of last decade is the increase of extreme climate phenomena worldwide. These phenomena have been related to significant climate change, compared to the past. The research that has been developed in this field has led to the assumption that climate change has been resulted mostly due to the following three reasons: ‘a) the changes in solar’s radiation, b) the changes in the structure of atmosphere and c) the changes in the earth’s surface’ (Ahrens 2007, p.438). Certain events, such as ‘the tectonic activity’ (Rafferty 2011, p.179) have been also related to the current expansion of climate change. In addition, it has been proved that the lack of control in regard to climate change can lead to non-reversible problems, such as global warming (Maslin 2007, p.17). One of the most important aspects of climate change seems to be its potential impact on water networks supply. The specific issue is explored below using appropriate literature. The findings of empirical research and data published by governmental and non-governmental organizations have been also employed for offering an in-depth analysis in regard to this study’s subject. 2. Climate change and hydraulic impacts on water networks supply – Literature Review 2.1 Parameters of climate change and their hydraulic impacts on water networks supply. In its most common sense, the term climate change is explained as ‘the changes on climate as caused by human activitities’ (ERM 2007, p.1). Usually, climate change is reflected in ‘the alteration of the composition of global atmosphere’ (ERM 2007, p.1). There are several factors that are related to climate change. In a study developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007) it is made clear that the relationship between climate and specific events has not fully explored. For this reason, when trying to evaluate climate change it is necessary to refer to appropriate parameters (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007, p.718). In any case, evaluating climate changes can be a challenging task since climate conditions are not standardized (Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change 2007, p.718). In terms of their context, the parameters of climate change can be highly differentiated. In fact, it seems that each time that climate changes need to be assessed the parameters used need to vary according to the characteristics of the region, as of its geography, and the information available (Van Dam 2003, p.111). Of course, there are certain parameters that are necessarily used when evaluating climate changes worldwide. The level of CO2 emissions or the annual average volume of waste can be considered as indicative parameters of such type (Van Dam 2003, p.111). It should be noted that climate change is usually evaluated using appropriate models. The parameters on which these models are based can be different according to the structure of each model as related to its aims. For example, there are models that require the use of ‘current climate conditions for predicting future climate conditions’ (Mirza and Ahmad 2005, p.32). Other models can employ different parameters, including the characteristics of a region’s soil, such as ‘soil structure or soil moisture’ (Mirza and Ahmad 2005, p.32). Solar radiation, in regard to a particular region, can be also a parameter that needs to be taken into consideration when evaluating the climate change in regard to the above region (Martens & Rotmans 1999, p.33). The high variety of parameters in regard to climate change is also highlighted in a study published by the World Bank in 2010. In the above study reference is made, as examples, to the ‘loss of biodiversity or the estimated market value of environmental services’ (World Bank 2010, 49). Fung, Lopez and New (2011) note that choosing the appropriate sets of parameters for evaluating climate change can be a task equally difficult with that of identifying parameters that can be appropriate for the particular kind of research (Fung, Lopez and New 2011, p.94). This means that the researcher who explores climate change has to face two critical challenges: a) at a first level he has to identify those parameters that could be used for the specific task (Fung, Lopez and New 2011, p.94), b) then, he had to combine these parameters into appropriate sets so that the results of the study are valid (Fung, Lopez and New 2011, p.94). In the study of Alegre (2009) emphasis is given to the climate change on water networks supply. It is explained that in the context of climate change two different phenomena have become more intensive: ‘droughts and floods’ (Alegre 2009, p.365). In the above case, existing water networks are often proved incapable of responding to the needs of local population for water (Alegre 2009, p.365). Thus, climate change can cause severe problems in the water networks supply; the limitation of these problems can be quite difficult especially in regions where funds for the renovation of the water network are not available (Alegre 2009, p.365). Demuth (2006) focuses on a particular effect of climate change: the limitation of water resources in areas where extreme climate changes take place (Demuth 2006, p.558). It is noted that in these areas, measures need to be taken in regard to three particular issues, as related to water supply: ‘sustainability, balance and precaution’ (Demuth 2006, p.558). In this way, the problem of ‘low water flow’ (Demuth 2006, p.558) can be effectively handled. In this way, the harm caused by climate change on water networks supply is controlled. From a different point of view, Fung, Lopez and New (2011) note that the identification of climate change and hydraulic impacts on water networks needs to be based on two key criteria: ‘a) the number of water sources and b) the type of water sources’ (Fung, Lopez and New 2011, p.92). The material used in network’s pipes is also critical in regard to the effects of climate change on water networks supply (Fung, Lopez and New 2011, p.92). It is made clear that the actual effects of climate change on water networks can be highly differentiated according to the conditions related to each case, as indicatively described above. 2.2 Data related to climate change parameters on water networks. The continuous monitoring of climate change is essential in order to identify early any problem that could severely affect existing water network (Brekke 2009, p. 13). According to Brekke (2009, p.13) ‘data from long term monitoring networks’ have been proved quite valuable in monitoring climate changes and prevent the appearance of major failures in regard to water networks. The monitoring networks can also help to understand the factors that cause climate changes, both locally and globally (Brekke 2009, p.13). Moreover, the information retrieved by the monitoring networks can be used for developing appropriate water networks, taking into consideration current and future climate changes (Brekke 2009, p.13). On the other hand, Demuth (2006) explains that each aspect of climate change can be evaluated using data of different type, depending on the issue under examination. For example, when having to evaluate ‘climate change in regard to the flow of the River Meuse’ (Demuth 2006, p.404), researchers have used data of two different types: a) station data and b) data related to ‘greenhouse gas emission’ (Demuth 2006, p.404). The findings of empirical research, as included in academic literature, can be also an important source of data related to climate change. Reference can be made, as an example, to the study published by the University of Regina (2005). In the above study emphasis is given on the increase of global temperature by 0.48o C in 2004, as compared to ‘the average temperature of the period 1951 to 1980’ (University of Regina 2005, p.1). The research developed in Asia in regard to the effects of climate change on the particular region, has led to the assumption that climate change has different aspects worldwide, according to the geographical and other characteristics of each region. The table presented in Figure 1 below shows the potential aspects of climate change across Asia. Figure 1 – Climate change impacts in Asia (Source, IPCC 2001, as included in ERM 2007, p.10) The climate change parameters on water networks can be made clear through a series of natural disasters, as occurred around the world. These disasters, resulted from climate change, have caused severe damages on local water networks destroying infrastructure and setting important barriers in water supply efforts. In 1998, hurricane Mitch caused such damages on Hondura that ‘the country’s status in terms of development was returned 20 years back’ (ERM 2007, p.15). Such damages have become common phenomenon worldwide. In fact, it has been proved that ‘up to 2007 about 25 million people have been displaced because of natural disasters’ (HRM 2007, p.14). Moreover, it seems that through the years the impacts of climate change on hydrology and water demand will be increased. In Figure 2 below, the potential balance between annual shortfalls and effects on climate change/ hydrology in the area of Portland is presented. It is clear that up to 2040 the impacts of climate change on hydrology and water demand will be significantly increased compared to the past. Figure 2 – Climate change impacts on hydrology and water demand in regard to Portland’s water supply (Source: Palmer and Hahn 2002, p.57) 2.3 Effect of Climate Change on the Future of Water Availability and water demand. Climate change can have important implications for water availability and water demand in the future. In regard to the effects of climate change on water availability different views have been developed in the literature. There are researchers who support that the decrease of water availability worldwide has been primarily a result of ‘the increase in water needs’ (Kabat et al. 2012, p.46). However, in most cases, the decrease in water availability seems to be related ‘both to the increase in water needs and the climate change’ (Kabat et al. 2012, p.46). The decrease of the level of water in Lake Chad, in West Africa, is an example of the last case (Kabat et al. 2012, p.46). In the study published by the University of Regina a similar view seems to be promoted. In the above study it is explained that climate change can severely harm water availability worldwide (University of Regina 2005, p.1). The extremely high temperatures, as a result of global warming, are highlighted as a critical factor in the decrease in water availability worldwide (University of Regina 2005, p.1). In the same context, Demuth (2006) notes that ‘the increase of annual evaporation’ (Demuth 2006, p.387) can be considered as the key reason for the decrease of water resources. On the other hand, Filho (2011) notes that climate change may not a critical factor for the decrease in water availability internationally. It is explained that the management of existing water resources is often inappropriate leading to the limitation of water available to the public (Filho 2011, p.128). Reference is made to the cases of failures in managing water used in agriculture and in handling floods (Filho 2011, p.128). As of the effects of climate change on water demand Fung, Lopez and New (2011) highlight the following fact: because water demand ‘is closely related to the social, political and economic framework of each region’ (Fung, Lopez and New 2011, p.110) it is quite difficult for accurate predictions to be made in regard to future water demand, as affected by climate change. Moreover, Dam (2003) referred to a research developed in the former Soviet Union in 1993 in regard to the effects of climate change on water demand. Through the findings of the above research it was revealed that water demand in the particular areas of former Soviet Union can be improved just by improving the technology used in water networks (Dam 2003, p.18). In other words, it was proved that technology can have a higher impact on water demand compared to climate change (Dam 2003, p.18), a view similar to that of Fung, Lopez and New (2011), as presented above. Towards the same direction, Gaan (2008) states that future water demand is expected to be influenced mostly by certain factors, such as ‘wealth, growth and distribution’ (Gaan 2008, p. 104). Again, climate change is not considered as a critical factor in regard to water demand. Billings and Jones (2008) note that climate change highly affects water demand in urban environments; this trend is expected to exist in the future. For this reason, before implementing a water supply network authorities make a ‘thorough research on climate change, as related to unexpected changes in temperature worldwide’ (Billings and Jones 2008, p.142). 2.4 Impacts of climate Change and hydraulic Impact on water networks Pipes Material (DI, PVC, HDPE...) The material and the size of pipes used in water networks are usually decided based on ‘engineering judgments and best estimates’ (MacLeod 2010, p.2). At the same time, the continuous increase of population in urban areas makes the continuous expansion of existing water networks unavoidable (MacLeod 2012, p.12). At this point, the following problem appears: at what level the climate change can affect the decisions related to the material used in water networks pipes? It should be noted that water networks can be expanded across an extensive region, the soil structure and the geography of which cannot be standardized. An example of a water network is presented in Figure 3 below. The water network in Armherstview is used as an example to show the potential effects of climate change on the material of pipes used in water networks. Figure 3 – Armherstview water distribution network (MacLeod 2010, p.89) In Armherstview, the local needs in terms of water are differentiated, according to the use of water by each particular stakeholder. Figure 4 below shows water demand in the above area, as this demand is differentiated across stakeholders. Figure 4 – Water demand in Armherstview (MacLeod 2010, p.92) It is clear that the years that will follow water demand in the region, by all stakeholders, is expected to be significantly increased, a phenomenon that it is highly related to climate change and the increase of urban population. Existing water network, as presented in Figure 3 would be alternated and expanded for responding to the increased needs in terms of water. Figure 5 shows the differences in costs of pipes, in terms of their material and their cleaning, as these prices were estimated in 1986 by Walski (in MacLeod 2010, p.94) Figure 5 – Prices of pipes of different material and diameter, pipe cleaning costs (MacLeod 2010, p.94) It is clear that climate change can affect the water networks in two different ways: a) climate change has led to the increase of population in urban areas; the renovation/ expansion of existing water networks needs to be developed on a periodical basis, b) climate change has led to the differentiation, and often worsening, of climate conditions worldwide. The continuous update of the material used in water networks is necessary in order for these networks to be able to respond to environmental challenges worldwide. The interaction between climate change and water networks can be understood through the graph presented in Figure 6 below. Figure 6 – Hydrological effects of climate changes (Yang 2008, p.2) 2.5 Recommendation of a possible solution to reduce the impacts of climate change on water networks. Through the issues discussed above it is made clear that the limitation of impacts of climate change on water networks can be quite difficult. In fact, unless appropriate measures are taken in advance, meaning the phase of planning and implementation of water networks, it is quite difficult for the effects of climate change on water networks to be effectively controlled. The ISO Standards in regard to Water Quality, ISO 13060, and to Water Supply Systems, ISO 91.140.60, have been established for ensuring the quality of water provided through water networks worldwide. Still, the application of these standards is not satisfactory. In fact, most water networks around the world do not meet the ISO standards, a problem usually related to the lack of relevant funds. The establishment of an authority for monitoring the alignment of water networks with ISO standards is quite critical. The above authority should have members in all countries, so that an effective control network in regard to ISO Standards is developed. In other words, the problem in regard to the control of the impacts of climate change on water networks is not related to the lack of appropriate plans of action and legislative frameworks but to their use in practice. 3. Conclusion The effects of climate change on water networks can have different forms. Actually, it seems that climate change can affect all aspects of water supply and demand. The literature and the empirical evidence presented above proved that the relationship between climate change and water networks is depended on a series of factors: the willingness of authorities to take initiatives for controlling the impacts of climate change on water networks is of critical importance for the limitation of these impacts, even in the long term. Of course, the availability of resources for supporting the relevant plans can affect the success of such plans. The international community has established a series of standards, ISO standards, in order to ensure that the quality of water provided to consumers worldwide is high. Still, due to the lack of effective monitoring mechanisms the application of these standards faces significant delays. The impacts of climate change on water networks cannot be eliminated but it can effectively controlled ensuring that populations worldwide have access to water the quality of which has been tested and verified, as possible. 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Van Dam, J., 2003. Impacts of Climate Change and Climate Variability on Hydrological Regimes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. World Bank, 2010. World Development Report 2010: Development and Climate Change. World Development Report Series. Washington: World Bank Publications. Yang, J. (2008) Climate change impacts on water resources and water supply security through adaptation. US Environment Protection Agency. Available at http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/wswrd/wq/wrap/pdf/china_climate_change_mpacts_water_resources.pdf [Last accessed at 27 November 2012] Read More