Key Developments around Gender Inequality in Education since 1960 - Essay Example

Outline key developments around gender inequality in education since 1960. How have changes influenced currentdebates and our understanding of boys’ and girls’ education performance? Introduction Education is a fundamental right for all; every child has an entitlement to quality education regardless of gender, socioeconomic status, religion, or ethnicity. Despite being a basic right to all, equality in education access has always been elusive and still remains a pipedream for many. Close to 100 Million children worldwide have low access or no education at all, majority of them living in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (Kanbur, 2002). This statistic does not factor in gender related access to education. Education is critical to the development of persons as well as societies as it maps the way for a fruitful future. One of the biggest concerns confronting most societies is ensuring that children have quality education, which conforms to gender equality. All children should have access to quality education irrespective of gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic background, or circumstances. Gender equality in education continues to be a mirage for many countries, especially developing ones. The lack of equality in the education sector frustrates most of the children’s potential, dreams, and aspirations. The sub-par educations perpetuate poverty and marginalization within society (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 34). Gender inequality refers to the disparity between individuals based on gender, whereby women have less power than men or vice versa. In this case, gender is a term constructed both socially via social interactions and biologically via health differences, chromosomal and hormonal differences. The social construct (gender inequality) yields inconsistencies whereby either women or men lack equal rights, opportunities, or privileges (Unterhalter & Aikman 2007, p. 15). The concept of social identity influences the roles and responsibilities that individuals play and inspired by socialization and culture. Gender systems are both dichotomous and hierarchical. Gender inequality has been persistent in a wide range of areas such as education and employment sector. Gender inequality has been manifested by issues concerning violence against women, gendered poverty, and women’s exclusion from decision making processes whether in political or economic life. The biggest challenge arising from gender inequalities stems from the fact that it is structurally embedded within the social fabric of society. Thus, overcoming the inequalities will require extensive alterations in social organization and interactions between both sexes. Gender stratification or polarization of men and women refers to ranking of the sexes in a manner that women or men are disproportionate in power, resources, prestige, or presumed worth (Kanbur, 2002). Theories and Concepts around Gender inequality in Education Gender inequality can be explained by systems that affect human behaviour, which include theories that highlight the institutional structures that assign both men and women differential roles, positions, and consequently dissimilar behaviours. Materialist Theories These theories utilize cross-cultural data on the status of women and men. Materialist theories hold that gender inequality stems from how women and men relate to the economic structure of society. These theories emphasize control and distribution of essential resources as the significant causes of gender stratification within the society. Materialist theorists assert that women’s responsibilities of being a mother and wife, despite their significance to the welfare of society, are mostly undervalued and also restrain women from accessing valued public resources. Materialist theorists also hold that gender stratification is amplified where women’s work is family oriented, and men’s roles lean towards trade and market place (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 34). The disparity amid domestic and public spheres of work has also contributed to gender inequality. Evidently, the division has been constraining to women and advantageous to men. This arises from connection of domestic and public spheres of activity to diverse amounts of property, power, and prestige. Women’s reproductive roles and their responsibilities for domestic labour constrain their access to vastly valued resources. Men’s economic responsibilities within the public sphere assure them of control of treasured resources; this gives rise to male privilege (Unterhalter & Aikman 2007, p. 16). Gender Role Approach Other causes of gender inequality arise from socialization and the structure of society that give rise to sexism. Gender roles are not even throughout the world since every society has certain expectations for both men and women, each with elaborate ways of producing people who embody those expectations. This approach spotlights on learning behaviours that are distinct as either masculine or feminine. Gender structure approach highlights factors that are external to the individuals. For instance, the organization of social institutions, especially the concentration of power, the legal system and organizational barriers promote gender inequality and sexism Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 36). Constraints to Equality in Educational Outcomes Throughout the 20th century, both the structure and the process of schooling remained largely rigid. Although there were few periods of experimentation, the mode of instruction remained unchanged with teacher-student interaction remaining rigid. This led to increasing gender inequality within education (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 37). The development of mass education in UK since the 19th century was marked by three crucial divisions; ability, social class, and sex. In the 1960s, there was an increased sensitization of race and disability within the education system. The gendered nature of education policy was shaped by the dominant ideologies of society and the state. Prior to 1960, the formal education channelled people into narrow roles shaped by gender, as demonstrated by the curriculum, teacher-student interactions, and counselling (Felicity 2007, p. 554). Previously and partly today, the curriculum had been rigidly segregated by gender, reflective of societal expectations. In this case, girls used to be taught child-rearing, cooking, secretarial skills and sewing while boys were taught mechanics, woodworking, and other vocational oriented skills. The teacher-student interactions were also different whereby girls and boys were educated in the same class but using diverse approaches. Similarly, the teachers had dissimilar contact with both sexes and bore different expectations for them. The dissimilar teacher-student interactions between the sexes propelled both boys and girls to act differently when in class. More often, boys got more attention compared to girls (Kanbur, 2002). Counselling, which is a critical task of school guidance personnel, involves assisting students in their choice of a career. This task incorporates testing students for their respective career preferences and aptitude. In addition, it involves advising students on matters concerning course selection and the training they should get. In some instances, the counsellor’s fell into the trap of channelling both boys and girls into gender stereotyped fields and activities. Development of Gender In equality in Education since 1960 Prior to 1960’s discrimination based on gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic background was rife. The discrimination based on gender transverse all spheres of the society including social, legal, economic, and educational sectors of society (Wrigley 1992, p. 26). Efforts to change the status quo were in tandem with maturation of legal egalitarianism and social democracy. This is the principle of equality before the law and entitlement (devoid of discrimination) to protection of the law. The growth of the liberal movement such as feminism in 1960s and 1970s led to empowerment of women in all spheres, including educational development. Feminist approach (feminism) roots for women’s equality. Feminists engage in the study of gender with the aim of changing the society to make both men and women equal. This approach, which gained prominence during the 1960’s and thereafter, contests the oppression imposed by the dynamics of social structure (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 38). Feminists take issue with the patriarchal society in which men enjoy the privilege and influence. Feminism strives to fight sexism entrenched within the society. Sexism refers to the assertion that a certain sex is innately superior or otherwise inferior to the other. In addition, feminists also confront sexual harassment, which refers to comments, gestures, or physical contact bordering sexual nature and which are intentional, frequent, and unwelcome. The liberal- individualistic perspectives offered some leverage for the implementation of equal opportunities and entitlement curriculum (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 39). The commitment to anti-sexist and anti-racist legislations was crucial in reducing inequality. The equal opportunity policies in education such as equal opportunities of the Education Reform Act (1988) gained momentum during the 1970s and 1980s (Felicity 2007, p. 562). This was a time at which government and society at large confronted the masked structural sources of oppression and inequality. The emergence of equality legislations during the 1970’s such as Britain’s Sex Discrimination Act of 1975 and the introduction of National Curriculum made it unlawful to discriminate women in admissions, access to any benefits, facilities or services in educational institutions. These legislations slowed down gender inequalities in education. The legislations eliminated unlawful discriminations and harassment and enhanced equality of opportunity between men and women. The enactment of statutory instruments for compulsory education secured entitlement for all pupils to education, disregarding factors such as gender, class, or social background. Thus, schools were able to respond to pupils’ learning needs while the teachers raised expectations and availed opportunities to all pupils (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 40). Efforts directed at fulfilling gender equality and challenging traditional gender roles stereotypes across the curriculum were crucial in stabilising a rather skewed education sector. These efforts included highlighting ways in which schools can adapt traditional male and female subjects to make them inclusive of either sex. The initiatives also include encouraging women to choose subjects that led to traditionally male professions and vice versa. Other initiatives encompassed inclusion of gender as a topic of study within the curriculum. In line with the principal aim, the policies also focused on combating gender based harassment and violence as well as enhancing the representation of women in decision making bodies. The policies also counteracted gender based attainment patterns (Felicity 2007, p. 566). How the changes have Influenced Current Debates and Understanding of Boys’ and Girls’ Education Performance Almost every society in the world features inequalities based on gender. In most societies, the placement of women and men is unequal at various levels of social organization. These levels are inclusive of macro level of societal economy all through to institutions of society such as the education sector. Hence, social organization is gendered; the rewarding of men and women is skewed. The initiatives to counteract gender inequality in education have encompassed confronting the gender gap, which varies with subjects; girls outperform boys or vice versa (World Bank 2010, p. 12). The changes made in the education sector since 1960s have led to reduction of inequality. Thus, the gap is becoming proportional so that both sexes attain relatively stable satisfactory grades. For example, in UK, there has been little variation in attainment gap since mid 1990’s. Recently, in 2007, the Equal Opportunity Commission highlighted the urgent need to confront gender stereotypes in subject choice and career advice, pupil attainment, and sexual and sexist harassment and violence (Dawtrey, Holland & Sheldon 1995, p. 43). Anti-sexist policies should be coupled with funding policy in order to redress social inequality. Similarly, there is a need to develop a curriculum, guidance and school climate that counteracts gender stereotyping. This will include integrating gender equality as a topic or an inter-disciplinary theme in school curricular. In addition, combating gender stereotyping in career choice is also crucial to enhance equality in education. The chief focus should be on achieving equality in admission, learning process, and attainment outcomes (Wrigley 1992, p. 26). Conclusion Education is critical in shaping competitiveness and enhancing the lives of the populations. Education contributes to ending of generational cycles of poverty and diseases as well as environmental sustainability by availing a platform for sustainable development. Education equips both boys and girls with essential skills to facilitate activity within social, economic, and political decision making in the society (World Bank 2010, p. 13). Rights based approach to the provision of education is a valuable way of tackling society’s deeply entrenched inequalities, which condemn a large number of children, especially girls, to a life without or with poor quality education. This translates to a life full of missed opportunities. Efforts directed at guaranteeing every child’s access to quality education lay the ground for growth, transformation, advancement, opportunity, and equality. Despite the legislative and policy frameworks directed at ending gender educational inequality, the inequality has persisted throughout the 21st century. Gender inequalities in terms of subject preferences and performance still manifest themselves. The rhetoric on gender equity has not helped to bridge the gap either. The attainment of equality within the education sector requires a decisive concerted effort of all parties. For an even access to education to all, monetary investment, societal and political will are crucial. The motivation of eliminating disparities in education, which revolves around literacy, inclusion, quality, and capacity development should not only hinge on access to education but also on the quality and duration of that education. References List Dawtrey, L., Holland, J. & Sheldon, S. (1995). Equality and inequality in educational policy: A reader, Avon, The Open University. pp. 34-44. Felicity, A. (2007). Disability, Education and Social Change in England since 1960, History of Education, 36(4-5). pp. 551-568. Kanbur, R. (2002). Education, Empowerment and Gender Inequalities. (Online). Available at citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? (Accessed on 29 April 2012). Unterhalter, E. & Aikman, S. (2007). Practicing Gender Equality in Education. London, Oxfam. pp. 14-18. Wrigley, J. (1992). Education and Gender Equality. London, Routledge. p. 26. World Bank (2010). Gender and Development: An Evaluation of World Bank Support. New York, World Bank Publications. pp. 12-15. Read More