Construction of Gender in Asian Countries - Example

Construction of Gender in Asian Countries Introduction China and India are the cradle of two ancient cultures as well as two of the fastest growing economies in the world today. There is a common cultural thread uniting these two nations in that they are “deeply entrenched and broadly institutionalized [in] traditions of pluralism with respect to gender and sexuality”1. A comparison of gender constructs in the two cultures shall help a better understanding of the same. This essay shall analyse the manner in which gender is constructed in two Asian countries, and consider their concepts of masculinity, femininity and gender pluralism. It shall argue that, even though their basic ideologies of gender appear more pluralistic than the west, skewed female sex ratios expose the inequalities that underlie the gender relations in these societies. The era of globalization has brought in changes like candid acknowledgement of transsexuals, gay and lesbian relationships; however, modernization has only served to accentuate the gender inequalities that already exist. Masculine, Feminine, the “Third” and Gender Pluralism It may be pertinent here to understand the terms, ‘gender’ and ‘sexuality’. “Gender is an ideology or a discourse that serves as a means of justifying certain forms of social organization”2 and while sexuality is also socially constructed3, it is described by Kant as more than “an inclination which one human being has for another as such, but is an inclination for the sex of another. . . [O]nly her sex is the object of his desires”4. Though in the actual sense the term ‘gender’ denotes the social expectations placed on a human being with specific physical attributes and can stand for male or female, in Southeast Asia particularly, it seems to be another name for women, just as ‘sexuality’ is almost synonymous with heterosexuality5. Interest in recent times, in the field of gendered studies have led to a further awakening in what is called matters of sexuality – gay, lesbian and queer studies. In general, a male is one who possess the physical attributes of a man and also exhibits appropriate human characteristics/behaviour that conforms with masculinity, and the vice versa is a female with feminine traits. In China and India, it is also accepted that not all human beings fall strictly into these two categories. And unlike in the west, while they are not exactly normal, they are not considered totally abnormal either6, meaning lesser stigmatization. ‘Gender pluralism’ Peletz explains, is inclusive of “pluralistic sensibilities and dispositions regarding bodily practices (adornment, attire, mannerisms) and embodied desires, as well as social roles, sexual relationships and ways of being that bear on or are otherwise linked with local conceptions of femininity, masculinity, androgyny, etc”7. Thus, the transsexual persons are considered to be the ‘third’ gender or category. Chinese Wen-Wu and the Indian Ardhanari Even though China may have had a matriarchal lineage in pre-Confucian times8, currently it is very much a patriarchal society with male dominated values. The gendered roles of women are defined by the strict adherence to the Three Obediences’ and the Four Virtues9. Chastity (zhen) and loyalty to her husband and his family, taking care of the domestic affairs and a little management of economic matters largely defined the roles of the Chinese women and female sexuality was emphasized through practices like “foot-binding” 10 in pre-modern China. Examples of women are often cited from Han, Qing and Ming dynasties as gender stereotypes. This is very similar to the ideologies of the Indian sub-continent, which at the outset elevates its women to the position of Goddesses’ and boasts of original matriarchal communities in some parts like Kerala11 but, in practice has a well defined set of codes that are similar to the Chinese, and praises values like chastity, obedience, loyalty, meekness, and voluntary sacrifices to suit the wishes of the husband and his family as worthy characteristics to be followed. Examples of this can be cited from the way Sita was asked to enter the fire as a test of her purity by her own husband Rama12. While in Vedic period women like Gargi and Maitreyi 13seem to have had had a more equal platform in the society, in later periods the role of the gendered sex in India became more subordinate and subversive to men - their lord and the master (pati and guru). The definition of masculinity in Chinese culture, is however, a lot different from the concepts of male stereotypes in the west with “chivalric romances14” wherein love and indirectly sex is the inspiration for heroism. In Chinese perspective “binary opposites between Wen the mental or civil, and Wu the physical or martial15” make an ideal hero. Wen-Wu, the Chinese concept of ideal masculinity or manhood, is central to all Chinese discussions of gender and sex. Self-control is fundamental to physical strength acquisition, and therefore women are a weakness and inferior distractions. A true hero who wishes to epitomize masculine oriented Wu scorns women and female traits, avoids any relationship and closeness and attraction between men is considered positive; the ideals for the masculine gender can originate from “social relationships such as patronage, fraternity, camaraderie and even rivalry” and some of the negative aspects of maleness may be “possessiveness, jealousy16” and so on. Along with Wu a Wen aspirant cultivates appreciation of various arts and skills, so as to become a caizi, and wenren 17(a scholar and a cultured person) and enjoys the relationship of women as a part of his masculinity. Even more interesting is the concept of the Ardhanari18 or the half-woman composition of Shiva – one of the three Hindu Trinities, and the embodiment of masculine traits or ‘purusha’ in the Indian culture. He is the androgynous form inclusive of both the male and female -physical, intellectual and emotional attributes, all encompassed in one. This form of Shiva is worshipped in many parts of India also because it symbolizes the balance between the male and the female characteristics; the harmony between the emotional and creative side with the logical and calculative side of the brain, for having traits like mercy, kindness, and procreation as signified by the female ‘Shakti’ and the unperturbed, calm, valorous, strong and subtle power signified by ‘Shiva’. It is the merger of the two that can lead on to heroic victories in any walk of life, in the Indian perspective. While the above is the ideal state of masculinity, the more perceivable aspects of the male gender are bravery, the capacity to stand up for one’s convictions, governance, dominance, self-control, persistence, physical strength and mental grit. On the negative side, anger, violence and sexual promiscuity are accepted masculine features. While the social constructs of male and female genders defined the roles played by each in the families until recently, the advent of globalization and booming economy has challenged the hitherto played gender roles in India. Gender Pluralism and Skewed Sex Ratios As pointed above, in both China and India the basic constructions of gender and sexuality do appear pluralistic in that they seem more acceptable to the concepts of hermaphrodites as natural occurrences. In China homosexuality and “gay sex was illegal until 1997 and homosexuality classified as a mental illness until four years later19” is currently experiencing an upsurge in the number of same-sex persons wanting to marry. No longer are the Chinese apprehensive to declare their sexual preferences as is visible in the increasing number of newspaper reports of such cases. The increasing awareness in matters of gender and sex have come to be recognized and even “clinics of sexual counseling, sex therapy, or Western and/or traditional Chinese sexual medicines have been established in most big cities20”. The Times of India, a leading newspaper in India reports that the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu has officially recognized the “third sex21” by allocating places for them in the government records, and officially helping such persons to live a legitimate and satisfactory life. That gender pluralism is becoming stronger in India, is visible in the Ruling of the Delhi court decriminalizing homosexuality in the country22, in the year 2009. Following such reformations, transsexuals, and same-sex relationships have started gaining more acceptance in the Indian society, which had been less so during the years of colonialism and post-colonial period. While the two countries seem to be taking great strides in the field of gay and lesbian sexualities and recognition of trans-genders’ rights, it is indeed saddening to note that the male-female gender relationship matters have taken a turn for the worse. Discrimination against the female gender has led to a disparity in the rate of recorded birth rates and reduced female birth ratios, which Croll names as the “missing girls23”. For example in China, even though the position of women has improved greatly from what it was earlier, gender inequalities do exist in all walks of life. There are still universities that refuse women student applicants, and some factories and work places reject female applicants for various jobs, discriminating on grounds of sex. The number of career-women is still low in modern China24. Social constructs of gender have hardly changed since Confucian times and “having no boy is regarded as the worst possible problem a family can have, psychologically, economically, and sociologically25” and couples resort selective sex screening and abortions26, especially when they already have girl children in the family. In India too, there has been and alarming rate of female infanticide, selective sex-screening and abortions, with technology being used for killing rather than preserving life. Family planning measures propagated by the government worsened the situation sometimes by making available the use of modern, newer technologies like ultra sound scan to selectively induce abortions, reducing the chances of unwanted female births 27. These factors expose the superficiality of gender pluralism in these two countries and point to the conservative gender constructs and the biased notions that still exist in the male and female gender relationships in these cultures. Conclusion Common features exist in two of the oldest and fastest growing counties of the world namely China and India. They have some similar cultural beliefs and some practices pertaining to the social constructs on gender and sexuality. The two countries have inherent ideologies like the Wen-Wu and the Ardhanari, embedded in their culture, making them more receptive to the concept of transsexuals and hermaphrodites, than the west. However, though they do appear to have gender pluralism exteriorly, a closer scrutiny of the masculine and feminine gender constructs, reveal the conservative approach to gender relationships that prevail in the two countries. This is evident in the skewed female sex-ratios and the comparatively inferior statuses accorded to women in these two countries. The study of the gender relationships and the intricacies of sexualities and their influence in the society has been useful in understanding the demographic changes that have been taking place in these two countries, currently. Bibliography “Ardhanarisvara” (2010). Online article in Medical-Answers.org available at http://www.medical-answers.org/hd/index.php?t=Ardhanarisvara BBC News (2009). “India media hails gay sex ruling” dated July 3, 2009. Online version available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8131924.stm Branigan, Tania (2009). “Beijing's 'happy couples' launch campaign for same-sex marriages - Wedding pictures event as gay community fights hostility and discrimination” in The Guardian dated February 25, 2009. Available online at http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/feb/25/gay-rights-china-beijing Croll, Elisabeth (2000). “Endangered Daughters Discrimination and Development in Asia”, London: Routledge, 2000, pp. 21-69. Indian Law: Matriarchal Social System in Kerala (undated). 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