Foundations Of Alternative Media Development - Case Study Example

Foundations Of Alternative Media Development Introduction “Alternative media” is a term used to refer to media, both print and electronic, that function as an alternative to mainstream media in a specified context, regardless of the ownership of the mainstream media – private or government-owned. One or more of five dimensions differentiate alternative media from mainstream media: their content, their aesthetics, the modes of producing and distributing the content and the way they interact with their audiences [Att02]. Usually, alternative media seek to challenge the status quo, represent marginalized sections of society and foster networking within communities of interest [Dow01]. Alternative media can take one of many forms – radical media, ethnic or racial media, student media, subcultural media and indigenous media among other forms. This paper discusses alternative media from two viewpoints: as a form of anti-capitalism and as alternative cultures, while relating the discussion with ideas of the Frankfurt School. Viewed from either perspective, the underpinnings of alternative media are significantly influenced by the Frankfurt School’s critical social theory. In terms of organization of the paper, the author first provides background information on the Frankfurt School and their critical social theory. In the second section, alternative media as a form of anti-capitalism is discussed. Next is an examination of alternative media as a representation of subcultures. Finally, the author concludes the paper by recapitulating the main ideas in the paper. Background to the Frankfurt School and its Critical Social Theory “The Frankfurt School” of Critical Social Theory started out in Germany as the Frankfurt Institute of Social Research in 1923. The Institute was founded and initially funded by Felix Weil, a young wealthy Marxist thinker. The goal of the Institute was to consolidate different orientations of Marxist thinking into one research center. The Institute's philosophy was guided by three major historical events: (1) the failed take off of a revolution by Europe's working class as predicted by Marx, (2) the emergence and rise of Nazism and (3) the emergence of mass production and consumption, often referred to as "Fordism", after Henry Ford’s mass production of automobiles at his factory[Geu81]. Marx had not anticipated these or similar events. Thus, Frankfurt School thinkers found it necessary to redevelop Marxist thinking in a bid to make sense of the new social conditions. Max Horkheimer first outlined the critical social theory, or simply the critical theory, in his 1937 book Traditional and Critical Theory. The critical theory was a self-conscious critique of society whose aims were change and emancipation via enlightenment[Geu81]. At a more basic level, the critical theory sought to analyze the bourgeois “understandings” of society in order to demonstrate how they misrepresented human interactions in the real world. According to Horkheimer, the bourgeois used their misunderstanding of the working of the real world to legitimize capitalism. Horkheimer contrasted his theory with the “traditional theory” that refers to theory in the scientistic mode where generalizations are made about different aspect society. In other words, the new theory was a theory of social sciences while the traditional theory was a theory of natural sciences. Today, the critical theory and other theories of the Frankfurt School continue to influence thinking within and outside academic circles[Car00]. Alternative Media as Anti-capitalism Capitalism is the system of production where the means of production such as land, capital and equipment are owned and controlled by individuals. This system is opposed to the communist mode of production where the state owns the means of production. Capitalism creates a highly unequal society characterized by a few powerful “haves” and a mass of powerless “have-nots”. The “haves”, by virtue of the power accorded to them by their wealth, influence virtually every aspect of society including mainstream media. For instance, they can influence the type of content that suits their tastes. It is against this backdrop that proponents of alternative media, sometimes called independent media, have argued that mainstream media perpetuates societal power imbalance through their choice of content and the way that content is delivered[MLi03]. While sharing mainstream media’s channels to propagate ideologies, alternative media seeks to give critical dimensions to issues. For instance, while the mainstream media may be satisfied by simply informing the public that the federal bank plans to spent billions of dollars to bail out troubled commercial banks, alternative media are likely to give the matter a critical angle by questioning the government’s move. By so doing, the alternative media are inviting their audience to question government decisions. Another way in which alternative media may be seen to be anti-capitalistic is the way they produce their content. In capitalistic environments, the owners of the factors of production and enterprise, usually through their managers, decide what to produce for sale in the market place. Whereas it is true that they do not have an entirely free hand to produce whatever they want owing to market forces of demand and supply, they nevertheless wield considerable power in determining what ultimately produced. Taking television as an example of mainstream media, a television station’s program manager plays a crucial role in determining what content the station airs. This statement is true in spite of such recent developments as interactive television where viewers now play a greater role in determining the programs that get broadcast and their content[Att08]. By contrast, alternative media promote the participatory production of content. This approach seeks to abolish distinction between the producers and consumers of media content in order to create a more democratic media system[San09]. An examination of the ideological foundations of alternative media reveals that they are heavily influenced by the thinking of several critical theorists, particularly those from Frankfurt School. These theorists have criticized the capitalist inclinations of the mass media on two main aspects: the commoditized form of media and their ideological foundations[San09]. Mainstream media as a commodity and commercial enterprises are concerned with generating profit for their owners. Theorists who are more concerned with the ideological basis of mainstream media such as Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno argue that the integration of culture into the commodity exchange system implies that only those products that can generate a profit in the market place are produced. For mainstream media, the implication is that only content that is popular and people are, therefore, willing to pay for gets aired. The result is mass deception, conformity and the exclusion of dissident ideas. Thus, by producing and distributing dissident content, alternative media is anti-capitalistic. Another area in which alternative media borrow from Horkheimer’s critical theory is emancipation. Horkheimer sought to emancipate the masses through enlightenment. However, alternative media have gone a step further than simply enlightening: it seeks to emancipate through participation[San09]. For instance, for a long time, the radio served only as an instrument of enlightenment as communication was one-sided – from the broadcaster to the listener. There were no opportunities for listeners to give live feedback. It for this reason that the radio came under sharp criticism by Bertolt Brech in 1932 and later by Walter Benjamin. It is only beginning recently that the radio has become more interactive such that listeners can now call in and contribute to programs as they are broadcast. Community radios, a form alternative media, have also become an instrument of emancipation via participation[San09]. Alternative Media as Representing Alternative Subcultures There is no universal definition of a subculture. However, there are a number of characteristics that cut across a number of subcultures. Usually, a subculture will be a smaller cultural group within a larger one and one that holds beliefs and interests that are contrary to those the larger culture[Can09]. A subculture often seeks a minority style unlike the majority that passively accepts the commercial standards and styles that are handed down to them by commercial interests. Some culture scholars have also described subcultures as subverting normalcy and in this sense, they are regarded negative[Heb79]. A subculture brings together a group of individuals who feel that they are misfits in the mainstream culture. Together, they attempt to develop their sense of identity. In so doing, more often than not, they resort to alternative media. A well-known example of subculture is the subculture called punk. The punk subculture emerged in Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom in the mid-1970s and is founded on a genre of music called punk rock[Moo04]. The exact origin of the subculture has been a subject of controversy within the group.The culture is characterized by views that contradict widely accepted society views and an emphasis on the freedom of the individual. Punk rock, around which the punk subculture is centered, is loud and aggressive and accompanied by electric instruments. Like all subcultures, the early punks expressed themselves through such fashion items as blue jeans, black leather jackets and the so-called Converse sneakers. The punks denounced the prevailing culture in its totality, including the mass media. Instead, in search of authenticity, they established their alternative media that included independent recording studios and self-published magazines, also called "fanzines". They exalted music production as highest expression of creativity. Within punk circles, the process of creating alternative media and building interpersonal networks through them was guided by the “do-it-yourself” or DIY ethic. However, the punks’ efforts to authenticate themselves through the independent media seem to have yielded dismal result given the rapid decline of the subculture. In the United States, for instance, the subculture is documented as being last active in the early to mid-1990s[Moo04]. The spread of social media has fuelled the spread of subcultures especially among the youth. The tendency of the youth to express their identity online has been interpreted to exhibit subcultural qualities[Rob112]. Social networking sites are at a high rate playing an imperative role in the dissemination of information both in formal and social settings. In part, the popularity of these sites stems from the ability users to generate and disseminate content in real time. Indeed, this feature of social media makes them a form alternative media. Also, when one considers the role of the social media in the recent Arab Spring, then social media as alternative media resonate with Horkheimer’s idea emancipation; reform-minded individuals in the Arab world successfully employed the social media to mobilize whole nations to free themselves from oppressive rule. However, the idea of the apparent emergence of subcultures on media must be approached with caution for at least two reasons. First, social media qualify for both mainstream and independent media, depending on who is generating the content. For instance, corporate organizations are increasingly using social media to reach and interact with their clients. In such cases, social media are mainstream media. On the other hand, where activists use the same platforms to stir a revolution, as happened in the Arab World, the social media become alternative media. Thus, the boundary between the two is quite blurred. Secondly, some social scholars have argued that what are sometimes called subcultures on social media are no more than urban tribes. The two are quite different; while most subcultures meet many of the characteristics outlined earlier, most urban tribes do not. Urban tribes are simply small groups of urban dwellers who share common interests[Maf96]. Conclusion Alternative media, as the name suggests, are those media that seek to provide information as an alternative to mainstream or mass media. This type of media is founded on a number of premises that include the participatory approach to the generation and dissemination of content and the need to upset the imbalance of power brought about by the capitalist mass media[MLi03]. The ideological foundations of alternative media have their genesis in the works of critical social theorists, notably those from Frankfurt School such as Max Horkheimer. Alternative media may be seen as being anti-capitalist in a number of ways. First, it seeks to promote the participatory approach to content generation. By contrast, the capitalist mass media generates content for which there is ready demand and can, therefore, be sold for profit. Secondly, alternative media disseminate dissident ideas, the type that are not popular among mainstream media. Alternative media can also be seen as a means by which subcultures express and seek to authenticate themselves, as exemplified by the punks from the mid-1970s through the mid-1990s. In recent year, the social media have created opportunities for subcultures to thrive, although these must not be confused with urban tribes. References Att02: , (Atton, 2002), Dow01: , (Downing, 2001), Geu81: , (Geuss, 1981), Car00: , (Carr, 2000), MLi03: , (M., et al., 2003), Att08: , (Atton, 2008), San09: , (Sandoval, 2009), Can09: , (Cante, 2009), Heb79: , (Hebdige, 1979), Moo04: , (Moore, 2004), Rob112: , (Robards & Bennett, 2011), Maf96: , (Maffesoli, 1996), MLi03: , (M. , et al., 2003), Read More