The Context of Women in Management - Coursework Example

THE CONTEXT OF WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT Introduction Women are increasingly present in the upper levels of management. Much has been written and research on this subject before, but less so on the leadership behavior of women. For every study which argues that women are more effective leaders than men, another study says that they are not. How is it possible to cut through this thicket of contradiction? Is there a way to determine an answer to this question? Part of a solution may lie in understanding the context of leadership behavior. Every situation is different, but perhaps some contexts can provide us with more information. Identifying the context in which women make more effective leaders is a crucial step to sorting through what appears to be a great deal of contradictory evidence (Vecchio 2002). Different situations bring out different qualities in people. If organizations and companies have the capacity to determine when women leaders are at their best, in contexts their abilities are most effective, this may result in an increase in the numbers of women in the leadership ranks. In itself this might be a positive social goal, but for those who believe corporations need a better gender balance for performance sake, there would also be clear benefits. Indeed, increasing women in the workplace is a goal of many organizations. A recent study showed that many large, global organizations considered diversity to be a priority in the workplace. Almost 80 per cent of organization that responded to the survey indicated that women were one of the “most important groups” to have in the leadership ranks and to draw on in difficult crises (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). The key then is to encouraging their effectiveness in leadership positions. The more diverse individual workplaces we have as an economy, the stronger our success is likely to be. Although a great deal has been written on the subject, that does not mean it is well understood. One of the great variables in this situation is leadership style. Leadership is vital “to the health of a group, organization or society” (Hollander, 1978). It determines the future and the success of an organization. It also bring poorly performing organizations back from the brink. Understanding how women view leadership or use different styles could assist in explaining where women fit into the hierarchy and how more can be encouraged and promoted. The question to ask is: what do we know about the leadership styles of women, especially considering if they are business executives or business owners? A number of studies indicate that women show such behavior as collaboration, relationship building, and empowerment (Ernst, 1997). However, research that examines these kinds of skills sets among those in senior management positions generally does not show notable differences between women and men (Loden, 1985). Many of the characteristics associated with business success are found in both genders. Why is this the case? That answer must be part of the project below. The answer may have something to do with the freedom afforded to women as small business owner versus the freedom afforded to women who are business executives. This study examines the idea that business ownership may be responsible for some of these differences. Literature Review There are a number of important models to consider when reviewing the literature on this subject. Researchers have considered the issue from a number of different angles, each of which has a unique contribution. The most useful research falls under several different models of leadership. Theses models may best explain the contextual differences involved in womens leadership styles. Some for example believe that gender is the main variable and that there are simply a number of biological differences between men and women. This is a newer field of research. Only around 20 years ago, did researchers begin to tie together leadership styles with specific behavior that could be attributed to women in the workplace. This was an important development that has changed the way we look at the issue. In the previous years, research was conducted based on the ideas of “masculine” and “feminine” leadership styles. The researcher Loden, for example, created two leadership models founded on the interviews of men and women in upper management positions. Loden was able to identify five main areas that differed between men and women. These differences are important to consider in the course of this type of research. The researchers Jacobs and McClelland (1994) showed in their research that women and men use power differently in leadership contexts. This is an important consideration. They showed that, generally speaking, the personality qualities which are believed to indicate success in management do not have a particular gender. Still, power is seen in different ways by both men and women. Men saw power as a means to an end. Women saw it as the power to make consensus that would lead to success. Another useful theory that might help to explain things is the transformational leadership theory. Some early work on this model was done by Burns in 1978 when he analyzed political leadership. His conclusion then was that there were two types of leaders: transactional and transformational ones. This was a bit of breakthrough in the research and has been a very influential theory since then. A transactional leader, for example, pays more attention to the economic exchanges between employee and boss, focusing on the external needs of the employee. The transactional leader wants to do a one for one trade, vote for subsidy, for example. In truth, Burns argues, transactions make up the bulk of the relationships among leaders and their followers. This is the most common form of leadership in part because it is the simplest. While Burns focused on leader behavior being either transactional or transformational, the researcher Bass was able to make the distinction that both models are necessary to a leader’s success and may not be mutually exclusive. (This is a useful way of looking at things, but it is easy to imagine that the two styles may be exclusive in some circumstances.) Bass’ model begins with an aloof style of (laissez-faire) leadership then moves upward to the transactional type of leadership then to the transformational focus. This is a hierarchy of sorts, with the top achieving the most positive goals. Another useful study of this model involves work by the researchers Kouzes and Posner. They have spent time identifying a number of characteristics that define transformational leadership. These include: challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way, and encouraging the heart. The final model is perhaps most useful. Context may provide an answer as to how transformational leadership interplays with gender. A woman who controls a business, for example, may be a more effective leader that one who simply plays a role in upper management (Eagly and Johnson, 1990). It is however important to remember that such an idea may be biased. Women who own businesses are self-selected to be more transformational leaders in the first place. An entrepreneur can be defined in a number of different ways. In some ways it is difficult to differentiate research of the population of entrepreneurs from that of all business owners. In gender specific studies, the female entrepreneur was shown to be highly motivated and with a high amount of self-control (Neider, 1987). Then again, these qualities are found in virtually all entrepreneurs. Autonomy, relationship-building, and ambition were other, unsurprising qualities found in the literature. One important limitation of the research is that when women business owners were compared with male business owners there were no appreciable differences (Tibus, 1998). This may be an important limitation in that the advice given to women who want to succeed in management may be difficult to differentiate from that given to men who want to acheive the same goals. Methodology The question being asked is: Can business ownership account for the seeming contradiction presented in the literature regarding gender and leadership? It is important to decide how to carry out research after a research project is identified. A research methodology is the philosophy or general principle which guides the research. Qualitative research and quantitative research paradigms are the two basic philosophies for research that are available to researchers with their relative merits. Quantitative research generates statistics using measurements or surveys, while qualitative research is about exploration of results of similar research, attitudes, behaviours and experiences. A heavy emphasis often exists on quantification in the sciences (Denzin, 2005). However, it is not always easy to quantify or model a complex phenomenon in the real world. This means that sometimes pieces of knowledge must be fitted together to present a reasonable mental model or description that can be further refined. Qualitative research is more appropriate for the development of complex interrelationships in the more natural or real life situations with a possibility of using this methodology of research to test theories that are developed. It is used in the science-centric disciplines. The qualitative and quantitative methods of research can often work together and quantitative research can be used to further test theories developed using qualitative research. In addition, it is possible to use qualitative research to explain the results of quantitative investigations. Qualitative methods are, therefore, useful for rich descriptions of issues with hopes of achieving better understandings, with predictions not being the main aim and generalizations taking the form of natural generalization (Marshall, 1999). A preliminary literature review is provided in the previous section. Nevertheless, it is important to describe this part of the methodology. The selection of published research material, considered as the most suitable for a literature review involves searching a number of databases and libraries. After the literature search has presented promising material, the researcher proceeds to narrow and focus the list to provide only the most relevant material. This is done by reading the work which appears to be most promising. When making a final selection, the more important themes associated with gender differences, women in management, and transformational leadership styles are to be included in the literature review. The literature review develops insights into the topic of research and assists with developing an approach for further consideration. This is a vital step in the research. One should not forget that research as a whole is a complex field, which contributes to knowledge as a whole. The ideas that emerge from this literature review will assist in the understanding of how women and men differ in the management styles and what can be done to encourage more women to get involved in upper management. In order to conduct this research effectively a very large sample will have to be used. It may be useful to partner with a large umbrella group that represents female entrepreneurs. Another group that involves executives of both genders will also have to be contacted and surveyed. A number of surveys, in the thousands, should be sent out in order to get the biggest possible sample. The survey should be simply worded and should be done in such a manner as to ensure confidentiality. There should be a number of statements and sub-scales which will provide information on traits involved in leadership and various desirable qualities in a leader. In order to create an ethically produced study, the sampling will be done through informed consent and maintained in an anonymous atmosphere. To the extent that is possible, the surveys will be designed so that no information will be readily available to the researcher or to outside resources who might try to gain access to information that reveals personal identities of the respondents. In addition, the survey will feature a disclaimer and consent form that must agreed to before the survey is completed. Ethics is an important of all methodologies. Results can be seriously compromised by unethical collection of data. Additionally, it is likely that secondary sources consisting of books, journals, magazines, newspapers, reports and online databases will also help to provide a framework for the study, particularly a background on leadership styles and gender differences. A great deal of journal articles have already been identified. The previously mentioned sources are also likely to be useful for studying the impact of women on upper management and their leadership styles. The following schedule will be used in order to complete the study. The collection of e-mail inquiries will be done throughout the course of six weeks. It will take a significant amount of time for respondents to finish the answers and return them by mail. It should be expected that some may be returned after this imposed deadline. This is a potential difficulty which will need to be considered. Indeed, if too few responses are returned, it will be difficult to proceed with the research. Indeed, it may be sensible to include a type of incentive within the inquiries to ensure compliance. Prior to this collection, a week will be needed in order to design the the surveys. This can be an especially laborious job, so some flexibility must be required. In order to properly continue the secondary research, the six weeks will be used to collect as much relevant data as is necessary to complete the knowledge of the background and the comparative analysis. This time will be spent doing online research and utilizing a number of significant libraries to conduct research. Some primary research will also be conducted in the form of in-person interviews where possible. A few days will be needed to complete the statistical evaluations and draw conclusions from this knowledge. Two weeks will be used in order to compile the analysis and write the produced results into a thorough study on the topic. This time will also include revision and spell check. Charts and graphs will be generated during this time to illustrate a number of economic factors and margins. Some flexibility must be built into the timetable in order to allow for slow return of data and information and potential setbacks. The overall time frame for completion is around ten weeks. This is a sensible and achievable goal. Conclusion The potential findings of this study are not expected to be earth shattering. It is expected that the surveys and research will find that context does matter when describing gender discrepancies in leadership styles. Different situations will call for either transformational or more transactional leadership styles. An important follow up question will be: If we want to increase the amount of women in organizations can we create an environment that emulates the very thing that attracts women to owning and/or leading their own business? Within the context of ownership, women appear likely to report significantly higher scores in overall leadership, transformational leadership behavior and transformational leadership characteristics. There are a number of potential caveats that should be used when considering possible findings from the research. For example, if women are indeed found to be more transformational leaders, it may be because women perceived themselves to possess these transformational leadership characteristics because of the influence of popular writings that describe women as possessing more transformational leader characteristics than their male counterparts. This kind of cultural influence can sometimes explain results. Additionally, differences may be a result of women who become business owners because they have been self-selecting out of the corporate business environment and into the business ownership environment. This is probably one of the biggest potential caveats. While this study is likely to indicate that the context surrounding the issue of ownership or personal investment is a factor in the way women perceive their leadership characteristics one can still ask about specific context dimensions. That is, what is it about female business ownership that produces these differences? To answer this question, it may, then, be important to know how women became owners and to understand whether women started a business or became owners through another means. In other words, why did they get involved in the first place? This may help determine the specific characteristics of the context associated with the sort of effects found in this study. Another opportunity for further study is to do research to understand how environments can affect perceptions and, more importantly, the behavior of women business executives who exhibit transactional leadership. This could be very interesting. Are specific contexts constraining them from behaving as transformative leaders? Or is there again a self-selection bias in which women who are uncomfortable exhibiting transformational leadership styles prefer to work in a corporate environment? Understanding how women lead can be very useful to corporate executives, public policy makers, and individuals concerned with the professional development of women. This is an issue that affects us all. As the leadership role of women – be they high-level executives or business owners – continues to grow, it becomes an important economic factor. Our world is shaped by it. Encouraging more women to get involved is in everyones best interests. Work consulted Bass, B.M. (1985), Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations. Free Press, New York, NY. Bass, B. M. (1998), Transformational Leadership; Industry, Military and Educational Impact, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership, Harper and Row, New York, NY. Dawson, C. (2007), A Practical Guide to Research Methods. Ed.3; How to Books. Denzin, Norman K and Lincoln, Yvonna. (2005), The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research. Sage Publications, Inc. Economist Intelligence Unit. (2009). Global Diversity and Inclusion: Perceptions, Practices, and Attitudes, Society for Human Resource Management, Arlington, VA. Ernst, L. (1997), “Transformational leadership of male and female executives as related to a measure of gender role orientation: Further development of a measure of leaderships” Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University, Washington D.C. Jacobs, R.L. and McClelland, D.C. (1994), “Moving up the corporate ladder: A longitudinal study of the leadership motive pattern and managerial success in men and women”, Consulting Psychology Journal. Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 32-41. Jogulu,. D., and Wood, U. G. (2006), “The role of leadership theory in raising the profile of women in management”, Equal Opportunities International, Vol. 25, No 4, p. 236. Kouzes, J. M. and Posner, B.Z. (1987 and 1995), The Leadership Challenge, Jossey-Bass. San Francisco, CA. Kouzes, J. M., and Posner, B. Z. (2003), Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership, Pfeiffer, San Francisco, CA. Loden, M. (1985), Feminine Leadership or How to Succeed in Business without being One of the Boys, Times Books, New York. Marshall, C. and Rossman, G. B. (1999), Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Neider, L. (1987), “A preliminary investigation of female entrepreneurs in Florida”, Journal of Small Business Management, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 22-29. Tibus, C. A. (1998), “Ownership, and gender: An investigation of leadership among business owners and business executives”, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University, Washington D.C. Read More