Managing Justice and Security Organizations: Motivational Techniques for Contemporary Police - Term Paper Example

 Managing justice and security organisations: Motivational techniques for contemporary police officers and staff Motivational techniques for contemporary police officers and staff Introduction It has been argued that in today’s organisations, managers are more motivated by intrinsic rewards of the job role that are associated with greater challenges and gaining a sense of purpose than in jobs that provide just a stable income. Before evaluating this statement for its relevancy and reliability, it is necessary to define intrinsic motivation. These motivations involve enthusiasm and incentive that are driven by inherent enjoyment in specific job tasks which are existent without external rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivations can also be viewed as basic internalised desires to achieve power, achievement, organisational loyalty and emotional harmony (Gkorezis & Panagiotis, 2008; Reiss, 2002). Weinberg and Gould (2011) acknowledge three different varieties of intrinsic motivations which include personal stimulation, accomplishment and gaining knowledge. Intrinsic motivation is contrary to extrinsic motivations in which an individual performs a specific activity in order to obtain rewards as a result of performance and behaviour or can be influenced with threats of punishment for non-compliant or misconduct. Extrinsic motivation is defined more concisely as engaging in a job activity “as a means to an end and not for its own sake” (Vallerand & Rousseau, 2001, p.391). Extrinsic motivation recognises that social persuasion influences are highly influential in motivating individuals and is recognised by psychology-based literature that indicates a universal human need for social affiliation and the receipt of self-esteem from other important reference groups in the social environment (King, 2009). Hence, belonging and the receipt of socially-driven esteem are fundamental principles that motivate individuals and represent extrinsic motivations. Vallerand and Losier (1999) state that the influences of social persuasion are very significant predictors of motivational responses. This is not wholly surprising, however, considering the plethora of psychology-centred literature describing the universal need for social affiliation and self-esteem (King 2009; Maslow 1999). According to psychological theory, attainment of social belonging and development of self-esteem are necessary constructs in order to become fully self-actualised, which is defined as achieving the pinnacle and stature of one’s superior abilities. Unless social belonging and self-esteem development are provided through engagement with the social environment, sports participants will not be able to attain the drive necessary to pursue maximum self-enlightenment or superior quest for knowledge to become the maximum of his or her personal potential (Morris and Maisto 2005). The primary needs of belonging and esteem must be present as universal human behavioural constructs to become fully functional emotionally and cognitively. Having clearly defined the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, whether it is true that intrinsic motivations are more potent than extrinsic motivations can be determined by applying these concepts to the contemporary police organisation. Are police officers more motivated by intrinsic rewards than extrinsic rewards? This essay explores motivational models that are known to stimulate and encourage job performance in the policing organisation in order to either refute or justify the argument that intrinsic motivations are more persuasive and compelling toward the goal of motivating police officers today. Maintaining motivations in the police organisation There are ample arguments that serve to refute the notion that police officers are motivated primarily by intrinsic rewards. In order to be properly motivated, police organisations must provide work environments in which there is enhanced job satisfaction. Zhao, Thurman & He (1999) identified through research that the work environment is the underpinning rationale for what provides job satisfaction. The role of leaders and managers within the police organisation are directly responsible for this job satisfaction in which the provision of job role autonomy serves as a model for enhanced job motivation (Zhao, et al., 1999). Police officers that are granted opportunities and freedoms to determine how they will carry out their specific job role activities are more motivated to achieve objectives and enhance their job performance. These are extrinsic rewards that are directly attributed to the role of supervision and the hierarchical model of control that governs the policing organisation. Police officers and other support staff that have low levels of supervisory-granted autonomy are known to have higher instances of job burnout and the organisation experiences higher turnover ratios as a result (Kaliath & Beck, 2001). Hence, it should be recognised that job satisfaction is directly linked with intentions to be more productive and committed to the policing organisation. Job satisfaction determines the extent to which employees believe or perceive their work to be and the level of personal recognition that is received by the employee as a reward for performing productive work outputs (Schultz & Schultz, 2010). This is, again, extrinsic motivations in which police officers are motivated by the receipt of remuneration and incentives that are directly distributed by the external environment, in this case the role of leadership in engaging and working toward satisfying police officers and other support staff in the organisation. Sommerfeldt (2010) further supports the notion that it is extrinsic motivations that serve to encourage better job performance and enhance job satisfaction and organisational commitment. Using a quantitative survey methodology with a sampling of 246 different police officers, the study identified that the most primary motivations in the police organisation were the perception of feeling valued within the organisation, the quality of inter-organisational workplace relationships, pay and working conditions (Sommerfeldt). Hence, these are all externalised incentives to be highly motivated in the job role and have nothing to do with intrinsic incentives. It is well known that policing organisations are closed systems referred to as “slow-to-change subcultures” (Stephens, 2005, p.53). Therefore, many organisations hold very bureaucratic and centralised hierarchies in which there are little opportunities for shared decision-making. It was determined by Kaliath & Beck (2001) that job role autonomy is fundamental as an extrinsic motivator that gives officers and support staff more self-sufficiency and sovereignty. Hence, there is a need for police supervision to illustrate less management-style controls and more contemporary leadership theories in order to properly motivate police officers. More, Wegner & Miller (2003) indicate that well-structured police departments must maintain positive leadership competencies in order to motivate police officers using strategies such as transparent communications and job role empowerment. Authoritarian or otherwise dictatorial management and supervision should be a situation left in the past and organisations require leaders to utilise more cooperative strategies of leadership in an effort to avoid perceptions of employee alienation and to properly motivate higher levels of job performance (More, et al. 2003). Leadership, as opposed to management, is about working toward developing officer job competency and utilising a more participative leadership ideology. Boke & Nalla (2009) further support the notion that leadership capabilities of supervision as well as the establishment of a cohesive organisational culture are strong contributors to job satisfaction and motivation. It was discovered through primary research that officers perceived higher levels of job satisfaction when management was more attentive to the concerns of officers and established open and transparent lines of communication between officers and supervision. The ability of the culture to build socially-cohesive relationships and networks of peer officer relationships served as the influencers of higher levels of motivation. These factors, again, serve as extrinsic motivations that are inspired by the organisational environment and the level of positive social engagement with peers and supervisors. The extent to which positive feedback is generated from supervision as it pertains to job performance and attentiveness to officer concerns serves, again, as extrinsic motivations. The findings of Boke & Nalla (2009) reinforce, once again, that the argument indicating that intrinsic rewards will provide higher levels of motivation have been refuted. The importance and influence of leadership are extrinsic motivators and have nothing to do with the intrinsic incentives that are said to motivate better levels of job performance and enhancement of organisational loyalty and commitment. Clearly, there is ample evidence with research supported assessments of what constitutes higher levels of motivation with police officers that serve to refute the notion that intrinsic rewards will provide more motivational incentives and enthusiasm for job role performance. Leadership activity and strategies are extrinsic motivators which are recognised by a plethora of research studies to be the most primary and effective motivational persuasions in the modern police organisation. As further support that extrinsic motivations are more effective in improving officer motivations, Carter (2002) identified that self-image is a fundamental motivator in the policing organisation today. Self-image is founded on the sense of purpose that is achieved as a police officer and the confidence levels experienced by officers about what the future brings in the job role (Carter, 2002). Role conception and individual performance within the job role are directly related to job satisfaction as influencers toward achievement of a positive self-image. This assessment is, again, related to extrinsic variables associated with the organisational environment and the level of sovereignty that is afforded to police officers. Carter (2002) further identifies that officer motivations can be improved substantially by shifting toward community policing structures. Under this model of policing, there is more involvement between officers, community leadership and private citizens. Community policing models call for more transparency with the community and sharing of known criminal data with public figures through partnerships, development of websites and creating crime maps for community distribution (Diamond & Weiss, 2008). Community policing was prototyped in the 1980s in Newark, New Jersey (United States) in which foot patrol officers were instructed to engage with community citizens interactively as opposed to traditional methods of policing in automobiles. At first, police officers were strongly against this new structure and believed it served no legitimate purpose. However, after evaluating qualitative results of the study and engagement with participant officers, it was discovered that police officers now maintained a more positive impression of the community and members of the community maintained higher levels of esteem for officers which, in turn, motivated better policing performance (Burke 2004). Again, this is another example of motivation being influenced by extrinsic factors that stemmed from community member engagement and communication with police officers. Esteem was not developed as a result of community policing activities with community members and community leaders and was not achievable through inherent enjoyment of the position. It was the externalised receipt of rewards including respect and admiration as an outcome of policing role that improved motivation to be more dedicated to foot patrol policing function. Dharmasiri & Wickremasinghe (2006) conducted a study to determine the level of motivational influence that monetary (extrinsic) rewards provided to police officers. The study using a sample of 100 police officers in different organisations returned data results indicating that the majority of officers were motivated by monetary incentives over that of any intrinsic motivations. The study revealed that police officers in the sample group placed considerable value on monetary rewards and were the most effective at promoting higher levels of officer motivation (Dharmasiri & Wickremasignhe). As with other research findings identified in this paper, there is very little evidence that intrinsic rewards lead to higher levels of officer motivations, thus refuting the argument suggesting intrinsic rewards are primary motivational influences. Application of models of motivation The domain of human resources is often concerned with establishing effective motivational models to engage employees of an organisation to be more committed and motivated in their job roles. Fairholm (2009) identifies that imperative of establishing a cohesive and committed organisational culture to gain motivation and loyalty to the organisation. In the role of transformational leader, it is effective for managers to be teachers, establish positive communications strategies, and act as visionaries to inspire more effective job performance. To develop culture, the leader must be transformational, visionary, informer, teacher and inspirer. They must communicate with employees and regularly impart vision and mission to gain loyalty and support and no resistance to change. Hence, transformational leadership strategies and ideologies serve as effective motivational models in the contemporary organisation. The findings of Boke & Nalla (2009) indicated that establishment of cohesive and socially-relevant organisational cultures provided the motivational underpinning for effective job role performance with police officers. All outcomes of enhanced officer performance and commitment are directly related with positive engagement with supervision, thus representing extrinsic motivation and not any relevant factors related with inherent desire to engage in policing job roles for the innate desire to be an effective police officers. Under Abraham Maslow’s model of motivation referred to as the Hierarchy of Needs, social belonging is considered to be a universal and fundamental need which must be established before an individual can achieve the pinnacle of their talents and capabilities (Morris & Maisto, 2005). Social belonging, however, is established through the efforts and interactivity that occurs with other organisational actors, inclusive of the receipt of mutual esteem and feedback indicating a sense of value for the employee as important contributors to the organisation. Again, a sense of belonging is not something that occurs as a result of inherent desire to be an effective and engaging police officer, but involves the establishment of a cohesive and socially-viable organisational culture and through feedback mechanisms generated from superiors in supervisory roles. Yet another study indicates the importance of extrinsic rewards as effective motivators. Mercadillo, Galindo & Barrios (2012) performed a series of qualitative interviews with a large sample of disparate police officers and discovered that establishment of cohesive and socially-unified organisational cultures was a primary motivational element. Offered one participant in the study: “Before I thought it was a brotherhood where we stand together. But from the inside, you see a lot of fights between the officers. They fight among themselves, especially for incentives, but if all of us help to catch someone, we all deserve the incentive, and there is no reason to fight” (Mercadillo, et al. 2012, p.26). The interview statement described indicates that a lack of brotherhood in the social network within the organisation as it pertains to the importance of rewards illustrates that extrinsic rewards are highly paramount to officers and support staff members, causing de-motivation and lack of commitment to the role of policing. It is clear through this qualitative study by Mercadillo, et al. (2012) that there is an expectation that officers will receive a variety of incentives in the role of police officer and the study provides no evidence that suggests intrinsic rewards are a motivational factor. The study also identified that poor engagement and leadership competency of supervisors and centralised hierarchies that do not provide adequate feedback and recognition led to de-motivated police officers (Mercadillo, et al.). Again, as with other research studies identified in this research, it is the receipt of extrinsic motivations that properly stimulate and motivate police offers to sustain higher levels of job performance. Hence, there is a requirement for policing organisations to be considerate of adopting strong leadership skills and strategies as well as building positive engagement between peers and supervisors as extrinsically-based motivations. Hackett (2007) finds that a motivational model involving peer networking and peer counselling services are effective motivators which reduce such psychological factors as job burnout and stress which leads to under-performing motivations. Officers have a need to communicate their feelings about the complications of policing and the stresses of the job role. Many officers in the slow-to-change culture carry what is referred to as “macho facades” which causes officers to conceal the psychological outcomes associated with daily job stressors (Orpinuk, 2005, p.2). In this scenario, an effective motivational model is establishing a system of peer counselling with highly-trained officers in the organisation. As with other scenarios, this is not indicative of intrinsic rewards being an effective motivator, rather feedback and support from peer networks again represents a reliance on extrinsic rewards in the policing organisation to improve motivation and also reduce psychological burdens that can lead to lack of job satisfaction and overall job burnout. It has been established that lack of job satisfaction, as indicated by Schultz & Schultz (2010), is directly related to decreased motivational outcomes in the role of police officer. Conclusion There was absolutely no research evidence available that indicated police officers are motivated by intrinsic rewards, thus all of the evidence involving extrinsic receipt of externalised stimulus and reward are the most effective motivational strategies to enhance police officer productivity, efficiency and positive job role output. The argument that intrinsic rewards will provide the most motivational outcomes simply cannot be supported by any substantiated research studies on the contemporary policing organisation. Though it cannot be concretely concluded that police officers and other support staff within the policing organisation do not have some level of inherent desire to be effective police officers simply as a matter of believing in the integrity and honour of the job role, it is abundantly clear that extrinsic motivations are the dominant motivator for police officers today. Hence, it would be recommended that contemporary policing organisations establish motivational models and strategies that are aligned with recognition of the importance of externalised rewards with little emphasis on promoting intrinsic perceptions of job role quality and viability. It can effectively be argued that intrinsic rewards in the policing organisation are simply not effective in motivating job performance, commitment and productivity. The research indicated that monetary rewards, organisational culture development, relationship development with peers and supervisors, feedback mechanisms, positive leadership ideologies with supervisors, and providing opportunities for autonomous working environments are the most viable method of improving motivation for police officers. As was defined earlier in this research-based essay, intrinsic rewards are related to knowledge development, the achievement of power, emotional harmony and loyalty are factors related to intrinsic motivations. None of these factors, as illustrated by research, are known to be effective motivators with modern police officers. As a result of the findings, the initial argument that intrinsic motivations are clearly more effective and can potentially be applied to contemporary policing is not a valid assessment. 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