War or Military Conflict - Essay Example

 Wars have plagued the Middle East and Sudan for many years and these are areas where human rights violations and environmental damage has occurred. The first Gulf war produced an unprecedented scale of damage, while the Sudan and Iraq war have been characterized by violations in human rights and gender based crimes. During the intense deliberations that went on in the U.S. Congress before the onset of the Gulf war, two important aspects were notably missing. Firstly, there was no discussion at all about women and the war, although women formed a considerable part of the U.S. military. Secondly, there was little discussion on the potential consequences to the environment, of destructive action by Saddam Hussein, if he went through with his threat to blow up the oil wells.1 This reveals how the potentially devastating impact of war on the environment and upon women are generally sidelined or accorded less importance in a war like situation, where the overriding concern becomes one of “national security”. The drive for power and territory can often be the major factor propelling countries into war. A state of war has continued in Sudan for many years now, exacerbated by religious and ethnic tensions in the region and the struggle for supremacy by each of these groups. In the case of the Iraq war, which was instigated by Saddam Hussein through his invasion of Kuwait, the underlying causal factors may have been “loss of oil share production” compared to other countries in the region with no economic aid and debt relief available from Iraq’s Arab neighbours.2 Saddam Hussein’s invasion of Iraq was therefore impelled by the motivation to gain a higher balance of power in the Middle East region. While it appears that the North-South referendum which is to take place may bring about autonomy for Darfur and a cessation of hostilities, there have undoubtedly been some unpleasant and damaging repercussions, both upon the environment as well as in terms of loss of human life and violation of human dignity. In the case of Iraq, the blowing up of the oil wells and the protracted war in Iraq have produced similar damaging repercussions on the environment and on women. This essay questions whether the ethical objectives of the Earth Charter in preservation of the environment and upholding human rights are being sustained and if not, what measures could be taken to do so. Ever since Sudan gained its independence in 1956, it has been beset by civil wars between the North and the South, culminating in the present day bloody crisis that is going on in Darfur. While the Naivasha Peace Accord was to bring peace to the region, it has not been successful in achieving its purpose and this has prompted Salva Kiir, the president of southern Sudan to state : “the war will return to the South if peace is not achieved in Darfur and that is really our fear.”3 Sudan gained its independence in 1956, but since then has been engaged in civil conflict between the North and the South. The people in south Sudan are predominantly black and non Muslim, while those in the North are Arabs, therefore independence brought with it the fear in the southern Sudanese that British colonialism would only be replaced by Arab colonialism.4 International attention was drawn to the spate of killings occurring in Darfur in 2003, when Western policy makers began to advocate a regime change and the need to punish the perpetrators of such violence, since most of the carnage at Darfur was resulting from the atrocities spawned by Darfurian President Omar Al Bashir.5 The death toll has been estimated at about 400,000 with 2 million Internally Displaced People, with rape, torture and murder permeating the entire war.6 The violence in Darfur has proved to be especially dangerous for women because militiamen who are members of the janjawiid are perpetrating acts of rape and sexual violence upon women as a means to achieve their war objectives of ethnic cleansing.7 Gang rape and abduction of women is common and extreme physical violence is also a part of the pattern of abuse. Since Libya used Khartoum as a base from which to attack Chad, there was arming of Chadian militia men, which also resulted in Darfurian tribesmen also acquiring arms and weapons in order to protect their local lands during the course of the numerous local conflicts that raged in the region.8 Several of these local janjawiid chiefs were Arabs, who worsened the ethnic conflicts by promoting a supremacist Arab ideology and by pushing for land grabs, with the overall consequence being a marginalization of the region in national politics. Environmental and gender implications of wars: The Earth Charter is an international declaration of fundamental values and principles created after a global consultation process and endorsed by millions of organizations all over the world. The ethical vision embodied in the Earth Charter calls for environmental protection, equitable human development and the protection of human rights and seeks to provide a framework for these issues to be addressed. The Preamble to the Charter states: “We stand at a critical moment in Earth’s history, a time when humanity must choose its future........To move forward we must recognize that in the midst of a magnificent diversity of cultures and life forms, we are one human family and one Earth community with a common destiny. We must join together to bring forth a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature, universal human rights, economic justice and a culture of peace.”9 The Earth Charter helps to spell out the ethical problems associated with the implementation of the principles it embodies. Above all, it strongly suggests the need to maintain sustainability of ecology and the environment. The Charter embodies a vision that does not leave scope for the aggressive actions of the military, because it makes clear the imperative that nature must be saved or we humans will die10. The Earth Charter has raised ethical issues such as the preservation of the Planet and protection of nature and the ecosystem which are however, directly threatened by the militarism generated by wars.11 As Saeger also points out, natural environments become the direct targets of military action12. Part of the motivation underlying this is the notion that man must conquer nature as a part of his natural superiority over the elements. As a result, even when the environment is not the direct target in a war, it nevertheless becomes the target of the destruction caused by normal military exercises and activities that are carried out in the interest of protecting natural security. This may be noted especially in the case of the Gulf war. When the oil fields in Iraq were set alight, the impact upon the environment was catastrophic, because about 700 oil wells were set fire to and were extinguished only after nine months13. There has been enormous damage caused to Iraq’s fragile environment by the burning of these oil wells. As Pearce points out, the burning of the wells for nine months has caused the fumes to acidify rain, so that the city of Kuwait experienced darkness in the afternoon14. Additionally, the oil slick also spread out into the Gulf, creating an enormous oil slick that has destroyed local prawn fisheries for years. Marine life has not been completely wiped out due to the money that was spent on mopping up the spill and because the warm water helped in a faster breakdown, but considerable damage has occurred. The oil has also seeped into the groundwater and poisoned 40% of it, in a land where water is already scarce. Moreover, the Mesopotamian marshes along the rivers Euphrates and Tigris has been 90% dried out, thereby killing off many sub species, such as otter, wild boar, foxes and water birds.15 In both the first and second Iraqi wars, the invasions and potential damage to the environment were justified on the basis that any environmental damage would be mitigated because of the use of smart bombs. But experts in environmental and energy research state that smart bombs can increase pollution, because they target specific sites and when they are chemical facilities or arms producing centres, bombing them gives off a concentrated burst of chemicals which can be very damaging for the environment16. Saeger also points out that this is the reason why anywhere in the world where there is military action, there is also likely to be concomitant environmental damage17. Since it is military objectives that are accorded a higher prerogative than domestic programs, which also includes environmental environment, the net result is that the environment inevitably ends up being the casualty of war. For instance, as Pearce points out, desert soil has a thin, brittle surface that protects it from erosion, but the movement of heavy military vehicles across this crust breaks it up and uncovers sand18. This in turn produces shifting sand dunes, which according to geomorphologists may engulf Kuwait city one day. Another potential threat arises from the depleted uranium used in the tips of armour piercing rounds. These residues have been spread across Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia and are still existent as radiological hot spots that could hold potential for untold damage in the future. On the basis of these arguments, Saeger contends that any kind of environmental analysis which fails to take into account the role of the military in the local as well as global environment is likely to be weak19, while any policy devised to bring about changes in the environment will be largely ineffective if it fails to take into account the need to reconfigure the relationship between the military and the environment. In Darfur, the environment has also contributed to the exacerbation of the conflict and the consequent destruction to the environment. Sudan is a part of Africa where large tracts of land are dry and barren, where water is scarce and vegetation grows with difficulty. In a fragile ecosystem such as this, the destruction wrought by war has only meant that existing vegetation has been destroyed, water sources have been contaminated and women are forced to walk long distances in order to fetch water. This also places them in danger as they travel to gather food and firewood, because they are waylaid by the militiamen and raped and assaulted20. When women are raped and violated, they may also be subjected to extreme physical abuse, such as having their legs broken to prevent them escaping or their fingernails ripped out as a form of torture. Another unpleasant side effect of being violated in this manner is that the women may get pregnant, or alternatively, contract sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS. They are rejected by society and find it difficult to get married or even if they do, they may be divorced. It must be noted that such violations of human dignity amount to flagrant abuse of basic human rights, the achievement of which is also spelt out in the Earth Charter. In Darfur, the situation that appears to exist is a clear gender difference with men as the violators and women as the victims. Muslim culture favours men for aggressive acts and does not permit women to participate in them. For instance, American soldiers in Saudi Arabia who are women are not allowed to drive, use the gymnasium or enter by the front door, they need to use the back door, largely due to the subordinate position accorded to women in Islam.21 Religion has played a significant role in the Darfur conflict because it is a conflict between Arab Muslim militant groups among whom women are considered to have an inferior position as opposed to the Christian groups where women are considered to be on par with the men. Arab culture does not allow women to play a role in the war as the aggressors, who arm themselves and carry out military exercises in the interest of national security or, as in this instance, for ethnic cleansing. The differential treatment of women is especially notable in the Iraq war, in the lower levels of importance accorded to their views and the requirement that they function as second class citizens in both Iraqi wars because they were fighting in an Arab country.22 While Christianity does not relegate women to an inferior position, it nevertheless does not actively encourage their participation in war, because militant activity which involves conquests are generally held to be in the province of men rather than women. Since women are thus not generally encouraged to participate in war, it is the men who are aggressors while women often turn out to be innocent casualties and victims of the war. Arab militant groups that are causing havoc in Darfur have an almost non existent percentage of women within them, but the greater part of the victims who are abused and tortured in the guise of ethnic cleansing are women. This war certainly appears to reinforce existing views that men are aggressive and women are generally peaceful. The current situation and potential for conflict resolution: It must thus be concluded that the ethical objectives of the Earth Charter are not served by militarism in general which is destructive and the wars in Darfur and Iraq appear to be no exception. Damage is being caused to the sensitive ecosystem through military exercises and shoot-outs. The goals and vision of the Earth Charter are environmental protection and upholding of human dignity. The continuous war in Darfur for several years has not only damaged the environment, it has also displaced millions of individuals from their homes and made them refugees. In Iraq, the burning of the oil wells has caused a colossal damage to the environment which may possibly never be repaired and the disastrous consequences of which may continue to unfold over the years. The wars have also violated the principles of the Charter in that it has caused violations of fundamental human dignity, through the horrific crimes being perpetrated against women such as rape and physical abuse, especially in Darfur, which renders them unfit to move back into society where they are ostracized. The Darfur war has thus violated human dignity and at the same time, it has also upset the delicate ecological balance and caused damage to the environment, while the Iraq wars have damaged flora and fauna and may have irrevocably destroyed the fragile ecosystem. One of the major problems in Sudan that has been the cause of conflict between the North and the South is the differences in religious and cultural roots. While the Sudanese of the north are primarily Arab Muslim, those of the South are primarily African Christian. Therefore, interfaith movements may be very useful in bringing about peace and amity between these groups. By promoting an understanding between the groups and an understanding of their common interests, it may be possible to deal with the hostilities plaguing the region. The war has wreaked havoc on the land and destroyed the environment and it is in the common interest of both Arabs and Christians in the region to work together to restore the ecosystem and the first step in the direction would be to end the war. Pedersen points to the views of Diana Eck, who has stated that “Being judged as a group, not as an individual, erases the human face and is the first step toward dehumanization that gives rise to hate crimes.”23 As a result, the low level of interaction between the northern and southern Sudanese may well be the reason why they are clubbed into groups and it becomes easier for the other groups to hate them. One of the primary goals of interfaith movements is to encourage people of different religious groups to live together harmoniously, reduce tensions and to resolve conflicts.24 Hence, such a move may be helpful in reducing tensions and the animosity between the different groups. Nakaya points out those gender inequities which have subsisted for many years in developing countries also necessitate the inclusion of women in any peace process introduced to bring about an end to war25. If Peace agreements are to be truly effective, they need to incorporate the rights of women, equality in terms of property and other rights and the end of gender based crimes. It is only by including women in the formulation of peace agreements that women’s perspectives can also be included. This would help to ensure that the terms upon which any mutual agreement between the parties is reached also allows room for women’s rights to be protected. Preserving and promoting the ethical goals formulated in the Earth Charter poses a challenge in war torn areas such as Darfur and Iraq, that are already suffering the ravages of war. Any solutions to be devised must therefore be long term ones that are also geared towards a restoration of human dignity and human rights. They must also take into account measures that can be introduced to ensure that no grounds remain for the resumption of hostilities, so that the damages done to the environment can then be addressed and the delicate balance of the environment can then be allowed to slowly be restored. References Bhattacharya, Shaoni, 2003. “Iraq oil field fires could be devastating”, The Scientist, March 20, 2003 “Comprehensive Peace Agreement” [online] available at: http://www.unmis.org/English/cpa.htm; Christiansen, A, 1997. “Rhetoric, rape and ecowarfare in the Persian Gulf”, IN Warren, K, “Ecofeminism”, p 239-259, Bloomington: Indiana University Press Davion, Victoria, 2004. “The Earth Charter and militarism: an ecological feminist analysis”, Worldviews, 8(1): 112-125 Gender, Justice and Environment. Powerpoint Presentation. Lynn, William S, 2004. “Situating the Earth Charter: An introduction”, http://www.practicalethics.net/pdf/lynn-2004-situating-earth-charter.pdf; Nakaya, Sumie, 2003. “Women and Gender Equality in Peace Processes: From women at the negotiating table to Post war structural reforms in Guatemala and Somalia”, Global Governance, 9(4). Parasiliti, Andrew T. (2003) The Causes and Timing of Iraq's war: A Power Cycle Assessment. International Political Science Review (pp. 151-165). Pearce, Fred, 2003. “Future looks bleak for Iraq’s fragile environment”, The New Scientist, 15 March, 2003. Pedersen, Kusumita, P, 2004. “The Interfaith Movement: An incomplete Assessment”, Journal of Ecumenical Studies, 41(1): 74-95 * Reeves, Eric, 2005. “Darfur and the Completion of the Naivasha Negotiating Process(I) Sudan Tribune, January 14, 2005. Retrieved April 28,2009 from: http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article7554 * Seager, J, 1999. “Patriarchal vandalism: militaries and the environment”, IN “Dangerous intersections: feminist perspectives on population, environment, and development. A project of the Committee on Women, Population, and the Environment” (Jael Silliman and Ynestra King edn), South End Press, pp: 163-88 * The Earth Charter initiative. http://www.earthcharterinaction.org/content/pages/Read-the-Charter.html; * Waal, Alex D, 2007. “Roundup: media’s take: the wars of Sudan” Retrieved April 28, 2009 from: http://hnn.us/roundup/comments/36737.html Read More