Modern Age Terrorism and Its Threats in the US - Term Paper Example

Terrorism and Society 2009 OUTLINE: A) Definition of terrorism. It origins and targets. B) Modern age terrorism and its threats C) The USA as a target of international terrorism and its counter action after 9/11 attack. D) Strategy to fight terrorism E) Conclusion DEFINITIONS OF TERRORISM. After the events of September, 11 2001 terrorism was looked at from completely different perspective raising a long-time debate on how secure U.S borders are. The issue of action against terrorism became the first not only in the USA agenda but in international as well. The problem of terrorism, which has not been new before notorious September 2001 was revisited afterwards. The studies of terrorism since early 1970s have been hindered by the problem of defining terrorism and separating it from other violent actions. Defining terrorism is important to follow its origins. Though the phenomenon of terrorism is “highly diverse” and “deeply contested concept,” the research into the psychology of terrorism is important for understanding the sources of terrorism directed against the U.S. ITERATE’s defines international terrorism as “the use or threat of use of anxiety-inducing violence for political purposes, by any individual or group with the intent to influence the attitudes and behavior of a wider target group.” (OBrien 1996, p. 322) In comparison to other violent phenomena terrorism is “deliberate and systematic violence performed by small numbers of people,” with the purpose of intimidating and harming only a few. It is “political and symbolic”, “a clandestine resistance to authority.” (Crenshaw 2000, p. 406) FACTS At the outburst of terrorist actions researchers offered different explanations and interpretations of terrorism: it was viewed “as a form of madness with perhaps an underlying physical disorder,” “nervous over-excitement of the period,” or “exaggerated individualism and the spread of decadent literature.” (Laqueur 1977, p. 2) In the 1970s and early 1980s when two superpower states – United States and Soviet Union – were in opposition, terrorism had an ideological tone. International terrorism has been often viewed as "part of the superpower struggle for global supremacy, particularly with the continued presence of nuclear weapons holding human existence in the balance." (Grosscup 1991, p. 179) The opposition of U.S. and Soviet Union marked by the development of nuclear weapons, had the powerful influence on the terrorism development. The Soviet Union has always supported "liberation" movements directed against imperialism. States supporting terrorism such as Cuba, North Korea, Syria, Iran, Libya, and South Yemen were Soviet proxies. (OBrien 1996, p. 325) These socialist-oriented states, receiving finance from Moscow could have been involved in terrorist operations, “out of mutual interest or in repayment of debts or future favors” (Bell 1990) Unlike Western democracies including the United States, authoritarian regimes like the Soviet Union were more likely to resort to international terrorism as a mechanism of influence on foreign policy when they felt defeated by democracies. Bombing of World Trade centre in 1993, U.S. embassies in Africa in 1998 and Pentagon and WTC attacks in 2001 marked a new phrase of terrorism called ‘new terrorism.’ (Bergesen & Lizardo 2004, 38) A "new" terrorism which is based on religious beliefs is “more fanatical, deadly, and pervasive” in comparison to the older form of terrorism differing “in terms of goals, methods, and organization.” (Crenshaw 2000, p. 408) Islamic group terrorist activities operating in Middle East are the most dangerous for the U.S. and the rest of the countries as new terrorists operate on an international level and have access to “highly lethal methods” or weapons of mass destruction. The Modern age terrorism started with the Palestinian terrorist attack which happened in 1972 and was directed on the Israeli Olympic team in Munich and was followed by commercial airline hijacking. Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo used sarin nerve gas in Tokyo subway. (Deutch 1997, p. 10) ANALYSIS A trend which is observed in terrorist activities pattern is that more and more terrorists target civilian mass and unlike ‘old’ terrorist tactics of ‘just intimidating’ they commit mass murder as it was in the case of September 11 attack. ‘New’ terrorists are driven by religious and social ideas of world transformation viewing themselves as “viable alternatives to an established system” which is considered to be “corrupt and inefficient.” (Deutch 1997, p. 14) Fundamental Islamic movements associated with extremist Islamic terrorism stem from economic and social conditions of the region. Other scholars view terrorism as a political phenomenon rather than economic, which is evident from economic status of people engaged in terrorist activity and countries of origin, which offer fewer civil liberties. (Krueger & Malecková 2003, p. 120) Terrorists’ main goals are political objectives such as promotion of religious freedom, nationalism, separatism, ideology. The early international terrorist actions were also employed for political purposes. It was in 1901 when the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization seized a Congregationalist missionary Ellen M. Stone and held her in captivity for six month demanding ransom from Roosevelt administration. This event showed Americans that acquiring status of international elite, places a burden of being a “suitable object of political terrorism.” (Woods 1979, p. 495) Unlike terrorist of old age ‘new’ terrorists are not “clear in taking responsibility for their actions and defining who they were, often with elaborate radical political ideologies.” None of the organizations claimed responsibility for U.S. embassies bombing in Africa and for events of September 11. (Bergesen & Lizardo 2004, p. 42) Modernization brings up a set of factors, which serve a permissive cause of terrorism. For example, networks of transportation and communication allow mobility and the publicity means for terrorists. Urbanization is considered to provide “accessibility of targets and methods.” Cities offer a perfect battlefield for terrorists, ensuring “a multitude of targets, mobility, communications, anonymity, and audiences” as well as “a recruiting ground among the politicized and volatile inhabitants.” (Crenshaw 1981, p. 382) 21th century with its supermodern technologies opened gates to cyberterror penetrating into telecommunications and computer systems of the states, air traffic and power plant control systems, making them controllable by the intruder. (Deutch 1997, p. 11) In the 1990s U.S. faced terrorism as a “major national security threat.” In the U.S a "new" terrorism is introduced by radical right violence such as 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, activities of the survivalist, militia, and Christian Identity movements. (Crenshaw 2000, p. 408) All the changes which differentiate ‘new’ terrorism from ‘old’ such as network form structure of terrorisms, threat of mass destruction weapons, etc suggest of globalizing power, which impacts not only national economies but also terrorists’ activity, which seems to lose national borders. Some scholars view terrorism as a reaction of resistance to the globalization processes which lead to cultural and economic change. (Carpini and Williams 1987, p. 45) Due to its powerful position or its superpower status the USA has been a frequent target of international terrorism. Political, economic and military spheres leadership of the U.S. made it vulnerable to terrorist attacks. The attacks on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon made diplomatic, economic and strategic means to manage international terrorism ineffective and international community headed by the United States started to work out more effective means to fight terrorism. (Lozada 2006) STRATEGY Since 9/11, the Bush Administration has set many changes in motion to improve border security and still welcome visitors to the United States.  The challenging task was to reconcile changes to strengthen security and still facilitate travel (Rice & Chertoff 2005) Recognizing the importance of international trade to the U.S. economy, Congress assigned to Homeland Security Department to protect the borders as well as ensure “the speedy, orderly, and efficient flow of lawful traffic and commerce.” (Homeland Security Act) The old security paradigm of guns, gates and guards were replaced by technological advances approach. (Wamp 2003) The Science and Technology Directorate is responsible for development of new technology for homeland defense, which will have direct applications to protecting borders security. (Kyl 2003) New technological innovations for border security introduced after 9\11 range from ordinary to exotic - biometric identification, land-based surveillance and detection, aerial surveillance and interdiction, port and shoreline security, radiation detection, and cargo security. (Kingsburry 2003) The major task in terrorism attack prevention was improving border protection. The National Intelligence Reform Act included a provision, which stated increase in the number of border agents to 10,000 in five years, though President Bushs 2006 budget proposal included funding for only a little more than 200. The financing aspect of employee increase was not the only against’ this strategy. The problem is that increased number of Border Patrol agents cant effectively monitor some border regions. (Robinson 2005) Thus DHS officials offered technology programs to extend border agents reach. For protection of over 100,000 miles of border and shoreline equipment was meant to support dual use, such as aerial surveillance or biological, chemical, or nuclear detection. The surveillance systems with infrared surveillance scopes ensured enhanced detection capability. Integrated surveillance and intelligence system were added to protect the borders with Canada and Mexico. (Hutchison 2003) The Enhanced Border Security and Visa Entry Reform Act of 2002 mandated the development and implementation of an interoperable law enforcement and intelligence data system (the “Chimera” system) to be used for visas, admissions, and deportations. The act also requires biometric information for establishing the identity of entrants into the United States. (Bodenheimer, 2003) The National Security Entry-Exit Registration System, dealing with biometric information such as fingerprints and photographs and matching against a terrorists and criminals database encountered developmental problems and was displaced by U.S. Visitor and Immigrant Status Indication Technology (U.S. VISIT) system working with two biometric identifiers (photographs, fingerprints, iris scans) for an electronic check-in, check-out system for people coming to the United States to work, study, or visit. The Homeland Security Department has also introduced “non-intrusive inspection technology” with some examples released by the Technical Support Working Group: standoff explosive detection capability with a threshold range of 10 meters; remote detection of large vehicle bombs at a desired range of 400 meters; portable biological toxin warning sensors. (Bodenheimer, 2003) One more technology used for border security is remotely piloted aerial surveillance vehicles, or drones well suited to the vast wilderness and myriad logging roads along the northern border, particularly during inclement weather that might ground piloted aircraft. (Kranz 2003 in Bodenheimer 2003) For enforcement efforts along the southern border, the Bureau of Customs and Border Protection has purchased additional A-Star and Huey helicopters. The Coast Guard’s Helicopter Interdiction Tactical Squadron with its MH-68 helicopters with precision-guided machine guns enforced security zones around tankers, provided aerial protection for naval vessel zones, and controlled restricted waterfront areas. (Hutchison 2003 in Bodenheimer, 2003) Congress also found that “ports are often very open and exposed and are susceptible to large scale acts of terrorism.” During fiscal year 2003 port security received approximately $217 million in grants to began flowing toward port security assessments, preliminary improvements, and training. (Hutchison 2003 in Bodenheimer, 2003) Electronic fencing, improved lighting, video-surveillance equipment, radiation detection devices, and biometric identification cards were introduced to protect ports. (Kranz 2003 in Bodenheimer, 2003) Given the potentially catastrophic impact of a nuclear attack, radiation detection has maintained a high priority for border and port security. In May 2003, the Border and Transportation Directorate had distributed 15,000 handheld radiation detectors to supply every border inspector in the nation. (Kranz, 2003 in Bodenheimer, 2003) These measures provide more forceful national security and still allow entry of guests into the USA. They allow keeping balance between stronger security and commerce development. However, not all measures had been successful. When Congress adopted the Patriot Act giving rights to access personal records, search house without any legal grounding or proof of criminal suspicion, it raised a wave of protests. The Patriot Act infringing the rights for free speech and expression, privacy and religious freedom turned to be a failure in national security policy. In the critical period for national security the state proved to be able to react adequately to external threats. Since the tragic events of September 11 a great progress in national security measured has been observed. Many counterterrorism efforts were presented to fight against terrorism as well as additional measures introduced for border protection to disrupt terrorists traveling. Additional security bodies were presented to protect the American people. Extra funding helped to enhance technical assistance, security training and equipment and emergency management capabilities. A range of a new legislation has been worked out to promote security. CONCLUSION The clue to effective anti-terrorism strategic planning can be found in the nature of terrorist actions. These aim at intimidating people through mass murders and destructions, producing a great public splash. Publicity is the tool to produce effect on a broad range of population, which is effectively exploited by terrorists. If publicity factor was not so evident, the range of terrorist attempts wouldn’t be so broad. The effective anti-terrorist strategy should account for this aspect and ensure that terrorists’ attempts are not discussed in all minute details by mass media. Cutting down publicity opportunities is an effective means to choke terrorism in the core. Effective technical means of terrorism prevention combined with anti-terrorism media campaign are going to provide national security at the highest possible level. The basic measures which have been taken to prevent terrorists’ intrusion into the country such as biometric identification, land-based and aerial surveillance, shoreline security cannot give absolute safety guarantee as every technological advancement has its counter advancement, which can be applied in case of need. The effective counter terrorism strategies account for the origins of terrorism and its aims. However, offered strategy has its shortcomings and difficulties of implementation. In modern world where information circulates with the speed of light, it is difficult to keep secrecy of public events, particularly when they concern public safety. The probable approach is different attitude and response. Public attitude of being victims should be changed for being combatants responsible for their security. It’s about awareness of the threat, readiness to withstand it and self-protection. When civil population is perceived as soldiers instead of victims, the country has more chances to withstand mass destruction and murder. When every capable individual takes a responsibility for self-protection and protection of other people, terrorists have fewer chances to hurt civilian population. References Bell, J. B. (1990) Explaining international terrorism: The elusive quest. In International terrorism, ed. Charles Kegley. New York: St. Martins, cited in OBrien, S. P. (1996). Foreign Policy Crises and the Resort to Terrorism: A Time-Series Analysis of Conflict Linkages.” The Journal of Conflict Resolution 40, (2), 320-335. Bergesen, A.J. and O.Lizardo (2004). International Terrorism and the World-System. Sociological Theory, 22 (1), 38-52. OBrien, S.P. (1996). Foreign Policy Crises and the Resort to Terrorism: A Time-Series Analysis of Conflict Linkages. 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Federal Computer Week, 29 April Homeland Security Act of 2002, (2002). Public Law 107-296, sec. 402(8), 116 Stat. 2178, 25 November Hutchinson, A. (2003). Statement of Under Secretary of Homeland Security for Border and Transportation Security Asa Hutchinson, hearing on the fiscal year 2004 budget overview—Border and Transportation Security, Senate Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on Homeland Security, 108th Congress, 1st Session, 6 May. Laqueur, W. (1977). Interpretations of Terrorism: Fact, Fiction and Political Science. Journal of Contemporary History, 12 (1), 1-42. Lozada, M. (2006). International Antiterrorism and the Rule of Law. Universidad Fasta-Bariloche. Kingsbury, N. (2003). Border Security: Challenges in Implementing Border Technlogy. (GAO-03-546T), testimony before the Senate Judiciary Committee, Subcommittees on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security and on Border Security, Immigration, and Citizenship, 2 March. Kranz, G. (2003) Port Security Tightens. 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