Major Approaches to Child Development - Essay Example

Major Approaches to Child Development Theories of personality are important stepping stones for understanding development and research. Many theorieshave been propounded and differ in their beliefs about development. Broadly speaking, there are three important points in each theory as explained below. Firstly, a theory focuses on a particular aspect of development. Some theories stress on social emotional development, some emphasize on cognitive processes while others consider all aspects of development. Secondly, a theory looks at processes to analyze if development is continuous or discontinuous as in stages. Thirdly, a theory emphasizes the role of nature versus nurture or looks at contributions from both (Berk, 1996). Below is a brief description of the major theoretical approaches to child development. Behaviourism and Social Learning Behaviourism perspective took shape mainly through works of John Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Edward Thorndike and B. F Skinner. The theory believes that behavioural development happens through classical and operant conditioning and stresses the role of nurture. There is a strong relation between stimuli and behavioural response. In this case development is seen as a continuous process where learnt responses keep accumulating and new ones increase with age. Several studies were conducted to reinforce the theory that responses in behaviour are a result of external stimuli and that the external factors are more important as compared to internal factors. To take an example, John Watson experimented with an infant's responses to a rat and stimuli coupled with it. The infant was not afraid of the rat. However, he developed fear of the rat after a series of sharp sounds were made whenever the rat was shown. Behaviourists conclude that environment is more influential in shaping behaviour. Also, behaviours can be modified using external stimuli (Berk, 1996). Watson's theory of behaviourism brought about interest of many psychologists and birth of related theories like Clark Hull's drive reduction theory and Skinner's operant conditioning theory. Following these also emerged the social learning theories, which had a strong influence in child development research during 1950s. These theorists believed that role modelling and observational learning strongly influence social development and behaviour. One of the most powerful theories was developed by Albert Bandura. He and his colleagues stressed the role of selective imitation which affects their learning. He added the role of children's thought process to the original theory of behaviour which stressed only on stimuli and response (Berk, 1996).. Despite their limitations, the behaviourism and social learning theories had a significant impact on applied work with children. Based on these, techniques have been developed to socialize children into appropriate behaviours and get rid of inappropriate behaviours (Berk, 1996). Psychodynamic Theory In context of psychodynamic theories, famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud and his theory of psychoanalysis come to mind. Psychodynamics refers to theories of Freud, his followers' or theories based on his ideas. Anna Freud, Alfred Adler Carl Jung and Erik Erickson are some of the most popular contributors from the field of psychodynamics. The theories are have been derived from sessions with patients, case studies and use of projective techniques to understand the workings of human mind. Psychodynamics strives to make connections between thoughts, motives, subconscious mind and how people perceive the world. The prime focus in psychodynamics is the interrelation between emotional states of id, ego, and superego and their impact on early developments and processes. Psychodynamics also believes that early experiences are conserved in the unconscious mind. Later in life, these conserved experiences, thoughts and emotions either remain buried in the unconscious or find way to the conscious mind. These buried experiences are at times the cause of mental disturbances. Various psychodynamic theorists have devised their own stages of development from infancy through adulthood. However, the underlining concept is that at each stage, an individual is confronted with conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. The way to resolve these conflicts differs at each stage. Individuals constantly strive to strike a balance between personal needs and social expectations (Berk, 1996). One of the significant contributions of the psychodynamic theory is in understanding the development of the individual by study his/her unique life history. This has lead to clinical research and reaching out to psychological problems of groups or individuals rooted in their childhood experiences. In contrast to behaviourism school of thought, psychodynamic theory focuses on drives and forces working consciously or unconsciously within a human mind. While behaviourist theory lays stress on continuous development, psychodynamic theory believes that development happens in stages. In psychodynamics, nature and nurture both play an important role in development because the inner impulses are channelled through environmental experiences. Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory The cognitive theory looks at humans as active participants in building knowledge. The most influential theory was propounded by Jean Piaget. His theory came into shape by his careful observations and interactions with children. He respected children as active explorers and learners in constructing their own knowledge. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, children acquire 'schemes', which are the building blocks of knowledge. Using these blocks of knowledge children elevate from one level to another level of learning by problem solving. There are four stages in development namely, sensory-motor stage (years 0-2), preoperational stage (years 2-7), concrete operational stage (years 7-11) and formal operational stage (years 11-adulthood). These stages represent qualitative as well as qualitative changes in thought processes and development. The sequence of stages does not vary, though the timing may. There may be cultural differences too. The processes start at birth when a newborn takes birth with involuntary reflexes. Babies begin to practice these reflexes voluntarily and experience results of their actions. With manipulations and explorations of their own body and the world around them, human beings learn. Learning goes on from concrete thinking of children to abstract thing of young adults (Berk, 1996). Piaget's theory has made significant contributions in the field of child development. The most effected area has been education. The theory has encouraged educational programs to stress on discovery and exploratory learning (Berk, 1996). Like the psychodynamic theory, cognitive theory also follows a clear concept of stages and describes what happens at each stage. Both theories appreciate the role of nature as well as nurture in development processes. However, the underlying concept is wide apart. The role of basic drives and their conflicts with social expectations is of prime importance in psychodynamic theories. Whereas, mental structures and active play with environment is the root for development according to cognitive theories (Berk, 1996). Ethological Perspectives Ethology refers to relationship between adaptation or survival and behaviours. The theory took shape with observations of animal behaviours in their habitats. These studies lead to concepts of critical and sensitive periods in context of child development. British psychologist John Bowlby looked deeper into the applications of ethological theory to develop the concept of attachment (Berk, 1996). According to Bowlby, there are four stages in the formation of attachment development namely, pre-attachment (0-6 weeks), attachment-in-the-making phase (6weeks- 6-8 months), the phase-of-clear cut attachment (6-8 months - 18 months to 2 years) and formation of reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on). According to Bowlby, babies demonstrate built in attachment behaviours like smiling, grasping or crying with signal caregivers to approach the child and interact. Attachment with the caregiver with a given critical period is crucial and can lead to severe consequences if not formed. By studying juvenile delinquents, Bowlby stressed on implications of early maternal deprivation, which lead to severe developmental delays (Berk, 1996). However, Rutter took the attachment theory to another level of understanding. His studies of mother child separations show that separation from mother in infancy is not the only and prime cause. Separation along with stressful reasons such as parent in prison or divorce or death can actually lead to difficulties in development. Schaffer further challenges Bowlby's theory of bonding with mother. His observations of infants indicate that children are capable of forming multiple attachments with people and even objects such as a favourite pillow used while sleeping alone. Objects too serve as a source of security if adults are not around (Berk,1996). Overall, the theory of ethnology and attachment give value to both nature and nurture in the development of individual. This body of work has also deeply helped study the impact on children without families such as in orphanages and development of policies to extend appropriate care. Analysis of psychosexual theory of Freud Freud's psychosexual theory links personality development to sexual experiences in early childhood. According to this theory, the balance of three components id, ego and superego shapes up a personality. The id at birth, guides the child towards demanding for basic needs like hunger. The superego is the conscience which suppresses id's desires. It develops between 3-6 years because of socialization from adults. The ego performs a balancing act between the id and the superego. The roots lie in the way sexual impulses of a child are fulfilled. With age these impulses move ahead in stages namely oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. The development is dependent on how caregivers handle these impulses. Too less gratification may lead to frustration while too much may cause fixation on a stage. An appropriate balance helps children grow into well adjusted adults (Berk, 1996). Like all other theories, Freud's theory has made great contributions to the study of child development and treatment of psychological problems. One of the important pointers is that early childhood experiences can develop into problems at a later stage in life (Kaplan, 1998). Hence, the theory stresses upon providing appropriate experiences in the early years. However, there have been some criticisms too. The theory has been found difficult to test and measure empirically. The results of relationships between past experiences and later events have been found inconsistent (Berk, 1996). One of the other criticisms has been that the theory was based more on data gathered from mentally unwell individuals and should probably apply more to them (Kaplan, 1998). The theory also seems to stress more on the sexual component as compared to other experiences. List of References Berk, L.E. 1996, Child Development, (3rd ed.), Prentice Hall of India Pvt Ltd, New Delhi. Kaplan, P. 1998, The Human Odyssey: Life-Span Development, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, USA. Read More