The Perceptions of Childhood - Essay Example

How did ideas about the needs of the child influence the development of Montessori schools Module No:EM0W03 Assessment Perspectives of Childhood Assessment Tutor: Glena Baptiste Course Director: Carole Share Student: Asia Khatun The inclusive world of the twenty-first century expects practitioners be equipped to provide for diversity in multifaceted ways - learning styles, special needs, cultural disparity, or racial distinctions - with didactic approaches specifically adapted to the intricate personality traits of individual children (Allison, J, Jenks, C, & Prout, A 1998:6). The Foundation Stage Handbook (2003) leads early years practitioners in techniques for observing children at work in the classroom setting, formulating professional assessments of each child's progress, and devising ways of learning in anticipation of upcoming steps in the process (p.2). The unique criteria of modern early years education gives the impression of being built powerfully on insights and practices honed from the legacy of the Montessori system. Toward the end of the 19th century Maria Montessori built on the work of Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguine to develop just such an individualized child-centered approach to education (Kramer, R. 1988:60). Maria created a program for young children in the slums of Rome which became known as the Montessori Method. The incisive outlook that Dr. Montessori brought to early childhood education was her conviction that the education of each child must start from inside the inimitable little person, and that the child must be left free to learn for itself by selecting and using resources with the least amount of adult intrusion for as long as the child is absorbed in the work at hand (Kramer, R. 1988:113). Montessori transformed the role of the educator from a simple trainer to an engaged and attentive guide of children's independent development through the promotion of autonomous activities appropriate to the requirements of each child in the secure setting of the classroom. The rudiments of the Montessori Method and variations of Montessori resources are employed broadly today in early childhood programs world-wide (Kramer, R. 1988:16). Montessori passed on enduring insight into and deep appreciation for the natural aptitude latent in every small person when cultivated judiciously. Public schooling in the wake of the Industrial Revolution centered on passive models for children's learning: the school as a factory and the child as a blank slate. Children were the raw material to be formed forthwith into productive citizens (Lillard, A.S. 2005:7). In the Italy of Maria Montessori's era the family and its social status was the primary determinant of a child's education and profession. The prospects for a young girl of that era were even more firmly determined by convention. A married woman, as wife and mother, was expected first and foremost to be the underlying nucleus in the Italian family (Gutek, G.L.2004:2). Maria's childhood experience in a local primary school adhered to the established practice of a teacher feeding information to the children through dictation, with the child repeating back material learned by rote memory. Italian primary schools generally included all the subjects, reading, writing, arithmetic, history and geography, in a single book. Generally, the educator required the child to stand at attention and correctly repeat responses tediously committed to memory from the text (Gutek, G.L.2004:3). In spite of Italy's 19th-century gender norms, at the age of thirteen in 1883, Maria Montessori opted to study engineering in a state technical school, though by 1890 she had decided to leave engineering to go into medicine (Kramer, R. 1988:34). Through quite resolute persistence she secured admission to the University of Rome as a student of physics, mathematics, and the natural sciences, and passed her final examination with an outstanding grade of eight out of ten points which made her academically eligible to study to be a physician (Kramer, R. 1988:35). Over the course of her medical studies Maria won a series of scholarships, all the while weathering the routine and endless gibes of male students, as well as undergoing even the displeasure of her own father over her choice of profession (Standing, E.M. 1998:24). During her last two years of medical school, Maria studied pediatrics at the Children's Pediatric Hospital, a position which ultimately thrust her into the field that would engage her life's work. Finally in 1896, the twenty-six-year-old Maria graduated to become Italy's first woman doctor of medicine and took a position at the university's San Giovanni Hospital to begin her private practice (Gutek, G.L.2004:5). As a member of the staff of the psychiatric clinic at the university, Montessori became intrigued by the challenge of educating mentally deficient children. In 1900 Montessori was appointed co-director with Dr. Guiseppe Montesano of the newly opened Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica for children with hearing impairments and mental limitations (Kramer, R. 1988:86). Over the course of two years of highly successful work with these children, Montessori's research on mental retardation led her to study the psychological insights of two physicians, Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguin, who strongly influenced the creation of her own educational method. Itard transferred aspects of the common clinical technique for observing patients in a therapeutic setting to that of an educator assessing the needs of children in the classroom. Itard observed firsthand, by the process of studying the children themselves rather than simply theorizing, that children progress through distinct stages. From his observations Itard identified the most opportune times in a child's development for introducing activities that facilitated the best advantage for learning (Gutek, G.L. 2004:8). Seguin, a student of Itard, created original teaching materials designed to improve the skills of children with mental limitations, adapting pertinent materials to the clear-cut developmental stage of the child in question (Standing, E.M. 1998:32) . In late19th-century Italy children judged to be idiots or lunatics were incarcerated with adults in an insane asylum, bereft of any appropriate care. Disruptive children or delinquents were typically expelled from school and were either left to wander the streets or put to work in sweatshops as child laborers (Gutek, G.L. 2004:9). The Cassati Law of 1859 that established national primary schools was hardly enforced. Through her practice in the Ortofrenica, Montessori devised an innovative method of educating children, based on her astute observations of how children naturally learn, as she worked out her own techniques for educating them. Dr. Montessori is said to have designated those two instructive years of actual practice at the Ortofrenica as her "first and only true degree in pedagogy." (Standing, E.M. 1998:29) In the wake of the internationally publicized feat that a number of her children actually passed the same exams as normal children, Montessori began to puzzle over the questionable effectiveness of accepted teaching conventions for ordinary children since their skills tested at the same level as children with clear disabilities (Gutek, G.L. 2004:9). Montessori became convinced that "similar methods (as the Ortofrenica's) applied to normal children would develop and set free their personality in a marvelous and surprising way." (Standing, E.M. 1998:30) In pursuit of this goal Montessori plunged into more advanced studies in education: psychology, anthropology, educational history, philosophy and educational theory. In 1907 she created her first Casa dei Bambini, a sort of day-care center for children in the San Lorenzo slum district of Rome, which effectively became the laboratory in which to test her ideas (Gutek, G.L. 2004:14). Dr. Montessori's theories and practices not only stand up to the scrutiny of modern-day developmental psychology, but it can be conjectured that recent advances in neuroscience may only now be catching up to her (Sherman, C.1999:44). Recent scientific research in many areas provides astounding support for her major insights. There is a close relationship between movement and cognition, the best learning is active, order is helpful for children - all are supported by a strong body of evidence in psychology and currently-evolving neuroscientific research (Lillard, A.S. 2005:38). "Anyone who minimizes the influence of experience in the first years fails to appreciate the neurobiology of early childhood development," according to Dr. Peter A. Gorski, a past president of the Society for Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (Sherman, C. 1999:44). It is well documented that neurons and synaptic connections in the brain amplify exponentially over this period, and interconnected associations are forged and augmented by sensory, cognitive, and emotional stimulation. The more constructive the stimulus, the more apt the child is to expand these neurological pathways. While highly sensitive early learning periods may not represent an irreversible window of development, there is strong evidence that intricate neural networks are in the process of being critically organized over the early years. That is not to say the that the human brain is not still pliant and that regrettable events early in life can be somewhat adapted later on, just that it will be all the harder to modify well-established neural patterns of behavior in later life (Sherman, C. 1999:45). In the thought of Dr. Montessori sensitive periods for children are periods of intense interest in particular stimuli that aid psychological development. These points of sensitivity are "of such intense activity that the adult can never recapture them, or recollect what they were like."(Lillard, A.S. 2005:123) Small children advance through highly active periods of development. Particularly in the early years, the desire for learning in the young child is altogether natural and insatiable. As scientifically balanced and broadly educated as Dr. Montessori was, she took her cues from observation - carefully collected evidence. The dedicated educator did not begin with unproven theory, and then go about the process with predetermined expectations. Lillard notes that Montessori's data is less easily suspect than that of Piaget whose careful observations of children rely chiefly on responses to stimuli created for a set purpose, leaving him susceptible to an analytical conclusion that best fit his prior anticipations (2005:343). Montessori's aim was immediate and practical: to work out a system of education that succeeded well with children - and that with youngsters who at the outset were plainly at a greater disadvantage than normal children. In Montessori's view young children are all about questioning and learning, consequently little people require adult assistance only in order to develop independence and responsibility in the learning process. For Montessori the classroom offers an organized setting in which children are enabled to interact freely, at their own tempo, unhindered in the natural exploration of their innate curiosity. Concurrently the teacher's responsibility is to create the unspoiled setting and available materials through which the child can learn, all the while assessing and responding to each child's unique learning style and related progress (Gutek, G.L. 2004:49). In Montessori's time, contemporary educational pioneers, such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel had already generated new insights into the nature of the child and introduced some innovative new perspectives on education (Kramer, R.1988:63). Rousseau endorsed teaching children naturally, free from the repressive social conventions of his time (Allison, J, Jenks, C, and Prout, A1998:13). Montessori was, however, of the opinion that Rousseau expected learning to be too tenuous and amorphous. Pestalozzi emphasized learning through sensory experience in a safe place that emulates the home (Kramer, R.1988:64). Friedrick Froebel used learner-centered, child-centered, experience-based approaches to develop the world's first kindergarten, as a special setting where children could flourish (Gutek, G.L. 2004:29). Montessori appreciated these techniques, but, on the whole, found them over-idealistic and chose more concretely to meticulously observe children in a semi-clinical setting for the formulation of her educational strategies (Gutek, G.L. 2004:45). Dr. Montessori was a popular lecturer whose dynamic presentations motivated her listeners, as she could draw from and integrate shrewd insights from many different disciplines. Montessori's published lectures on a holistic conception of education drew from a variety of academic fields as well as quite practical observation and application. Her pediatric medical background positively influenced her perspective on children's education. As a well-known lecturer, Montessori attracted a vast following through the power and force of her character and passion (Gutek, G.L. 2004:13). Maria Montessori became a much-traveled figure, traversing the globe tirelessly, between two disruptive World Wars, to advance her system of education. Dr. Montessori directed educational forums and lectured to symposiums in Italy, the United States, the Netherlands, Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, India, Austria and other nations. Montessori was convinced that her approach was both transcultural and international, even though its treatment could be to some extent affected by diverse ethnic settings that might entail minor modifications (Gutek, G.L.2004:38-39). The characteristics that make up a contemporary Montessori classroom are effectively comparable to those first put forward by Montessori at the outset of the 20th century. Psychology performs a key role in the quality of the educational curriculum and the thought of Maria Montessori has almost certainly had its most dynamic effect on educational theory for early years practice (Lillard, A.S. 2005:37). The inventive little person is not a passive and empty slate, but an active protagonist of his or her own educational enterprise. The core of learning is action and the child learns through interacting with its immediate world. From an in-depth study of children over several decades, Montessori concluded that cognitive development happens naturally, given the proper tools and motivation, through assimilation and accommodation (Lillard, A.S. 2005:29). With appropriate guidance children engage easily in the process of realizing their best personal aptitudes; a child at play exploits a natural learning device. Children have a spontaneous desire to learn, are engaged in an ongoing process of discovery, and learn best by finding their own ways to go about it. The brain of the small child is endowed with a splendid learning system. It has a neural network apt for educational practice, intent on absorbing experience through emotional, social, cognitive, physical, and reflective interaction with the outer world, and rooted in the core human requisites to be, belong, understand, act, try out, and investigate. To educate means to bring out rather than simply mold into shape; the child must be assisted and inspired to expand to their own potential. "Each of us is born into the world as someone; we spend the rest of our lives trying to find out who." (Sherman, C.1999:44) Montessori methods intentionally conspire to enkindle curiosity through the child's environs, the careful staging of resources, and the ongoing association of prior exploration with altogether fresh new discoveries. The method's educative value builds successfully upon a child's particular absorption. The practitioner who is attentive to the pertinent materials, to the objectives each child has mastered and to what has especially motivated or intrigued each child will be prepared to build correlations, as well as facilitate further exploration for an individual youngster (Lillard, A.S. 2005:108). Since the time of the young Maria Montessori, when schooling for three-year-olds would have been thought to be simply wasted and children with severe learning difficulties were confined in institutions as uneducable, powerful advances in awareness have enlightened educational praxis and motivated substantial progress over recent decades. As with the experience of Montessori, the original responsiveness to special needs concerns has gone on to substantially affect changes in government policy toward the education of children in general and produce concrete legislative intervention in the critical sphere of early years practice in the United Kingdom. The Foundation Stage Profile is constructed on the basis of an ongoing observation, assessment, and accommodation of the individual child's needs in the interaction of the classroom along with highly specific guidelines for the use of materials in the curriculum (Handbook 2003). The Curriculum Guidance for the Foundation Stage was created to increase practitioners' grasp of the tangible objectives for children from three to five years of age in the course of the foundation stage. The Foundation Stage Profile Handbook works out a detailed implementation of the predetermined scope of the statutory foundation stage for the national curriculum (Handbook 2003). Dr. Montessori's insights prophetically anticipated later advancements that have since confirmed much of her intuitive judgment and served to pioneer in-depth research in child development. Maria Montessori's express objective of designing a resourceful way to educate children became more all-encompassing with each passing decade as she lamented a human race sorely wounded by two world wars. Ultimately, beginning with the nascent promise of the small child Montessori aspired to help besieged humanity to be its best self (Lillard, A.S. 2005:345). References Allison, J., Jenks, C., and Prout, A. (1998) Theorizing Childhood. Oxford: Polity Press and Blackwell Publishers, Ltd. Curtis, Audrey. (2002) A Curriculum for the Pre-school Child: Learning to Learn London: Routledge. Foundation Stage Profile Handbook: Early Years Practitioners. (2003). London: Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Gutek, G.L. ed. (2004) The Montessori Method. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Hainstock, E.G. (1997) The Essential Montessori: An Introduction to the Woman, the Writings, the Method and the Movement. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Henson, K.T. (2003) "Foundations for Learner-Centered Education: A Knowledge Base." Education Fall 2003 Volume124 Issue12 p 5. Kramer, R. (1988) Maria Montessori: A Biography. Wokingham, England: Addison-Wesley Publishing Lillard, A.S. (2005) Montessori: The Science Behind the Genius. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Polito, T. (1995) "Frederick Froebel's illuminations on kindergarten children's relatedness to nature." Education Winter 1995 Volume 116 Issue 2 p 223. Sheridan, M.D., Harding, J. and Meldon-Smith, L. (2002) Play in Early Childhood: From Birth to Six Years London: Routledge. Sherman, C. (1999) "Debate Continues Over Early Brain Development." Family Practice News, November 15, 1999 Volume 29 Issue 22 p 44 Read More