Organization Behaviour - Management (A Master of Business Administration Level) - Essay Example

and Section # of Q1: What is organizational learning? How is it different from individual learning? Organizational learning is an unending process in the entire organization that entails organized integration and shared understanding of new information. The process involves continuous acquisition of knowledge and taking risks through testing the applicability of new knowledge. A learning organization is that which makes it possible for the members to learn continuously thereby maintaining constant transformation that is necessary for the accomplishment of organizational goals (Pedler et al., 1991, cited in Pedler, 1995). One of the implication of his statement is that a learning organization should focus on the incessant learning and the improvement of potential, not limited in just senior management but also in all employees within the company, and in the business partners of the company such to satisfy stakeholders’ needs. Senge (1990) has the similar viewpoints on the continuous process of organizational transformation, which he defines organizational learning as a strategy that helps members of an organization to constantly develop their capability to generate the results that match their aspirations, where new and extensive ways of thinking are cultivated, where shared goals are liberated, as well as where people are constantly acquiring knowledge on how to learn collectively. Braham (1995) also has a similar view of organizational learning. He argues that it is the responsibility of organizations to ensure that members are exposed to learning opportunities and that learning is not hindered to continuously build their capacity and empower them to expand their perspective in approaching day to day tasks. Lifelong learning is part of organizational learning that helps individuals to approach problems with sophistication. Organizational learning requires the application of learning methods for individuals in the organization, teams as well as the entire organization to constantly transform it towards the course that is progressively more satisfactory to the interested parties. The other implication of organizational learning is that the self-development of individuals within the organization should be seen as a whole by integrating each individual’s learning together in it. According to these definitions, it can easily to be seen that continuous learning/transformation and stakeholders’ satisfaction are two of the key elements of organizational learning. Organizational learning is a constant and purposefully applied process incorporated and running at the same time as the organizational activities, which improves the capacity of the organization especially through upholding inventiveness among the employees. Watkins and Marquardt (1996) further argued that learning is composed and disseminated, integrated into work practices to inform all organizational operations and transactions. From the definitions of organizational learning in the previous section, one of the key importances for a company to become a learning organization is to cope with the rapidly changing environment and to deal with uncertainty. As illustrated by Pedler and Aspinwall (1998), the learning organization tries to find continued performance and growth, flexibility, accommodativeness and receptiveness to change. Managers and employees have a responsibility of learning fast and consistently to muddle through tumultuous and constantly changing operating environments. Organizational learning is different from individual learning in the sense that in the latter, learning is accomplished through educational institutions such as schools and colleges. Individual learning is mainly focused on attainment of personal goals. It is usually selective to particular issues compared to organizational learning where the information acquired is wide-ranging and applicable in an array of organizational activities. In essence, individual learning involves acquisition of knowledge that may never be shared among different people. The organization may not play a big role in individual learning as it does on organizational learning (Garratt, 1999). Question 2: Outline ‘Rational Choice Theory’. What alternatives to ‘Rational choice’ are there, and why might they be preferable. The rational choice theory basically postulates that humans have the tendency to act rationally. They weigh the benefits of any given situation as well as the disadvantages and the negative outcomes that might result and it is only then that a decision might be made to either undertake a particular mission or not. In an organizational perspective it means that the company has to explain to its employees what it is doing, where does it want to be, how it intends to get there and the time frame that the objectives are to be accomplished. Employees have to be told the benefits of undertaking particular tasks in the organization. Managers are expected to offer a logical explanation of concepts, which would be far better than imposing the will of the higher authorities on the employees. A proper reward system should also be put in place when developing performance management strategies, which enhances productivity of employees because human behavior is influenced by positive reinforcements such as reward schemes (Zev, 1992). So a clearly structured performance and reward system needs to be developed and clearly communicated across all channels to the employees. The negative side of having this theory implemented in the organization is that at times employees may question the manner in which the management tries to achieve through some policies that might be viewed as indirect coercion of human resources to accomplish organizational goals. There is a tendency of the top management to make rational decisions depending on their preferences while disregarding the needs of the workers. This is because as the rational choice theory postulates, the decision makers will implement the decisions that favor their preferences. The rational choice theory has many limitations and therefore its use should be minimal so that the negative outcomes of the system are limited to the lowest level (Archer & Tritter, 2000). The alternatives of rational choice are usually those that are associated with greater advantages to the rational choice theorists. The regret theory is one of the alternatives to the rational choice theory, which postulates that people tend to be regretful whenever they make the wrong decision. They usually anticipate the possibility of regret in the decision making process. People may be discouraged from undertaking some tasks by the fear of being remorseful in the end. The prospect theory is also one of the alternatives to rational choice, which is based on uncertain decisions. The probable results are understood by the decision makers. The theory is preferred because it is focused on what happens in real life and therefore it is realistic. The possible gains or losses are clearly understood and therefore the prospects are clear. The expected utility theory is focused on the capacity of the decision maker to compare the anticipated usefulness of decisions as well as the respective probabilities. The theory is preferable when dealing with the decisions that are surrounded by uncertainty and risk (Billett, 2009). The alternatives are preferable especially due to the fact that the individual can embark on decisions confidently regardless of the uncertainties or risks involved. Question 3: What are ‘Image Theory’ and ‘Rational Choice Theory’? How are these relevant to organizational behavior? Image theory denotes a new type of decision making, which is dependent on the core beliefs. The theory postulates that the decision making process is largely dependent on the decision maker’s perspective regarding the matter at hand. Objectives of the decision are influenced by the attitudes and values of those involved. The theory denotes that decisions are guided by the inherent beliefs of the decision maker or community of decision makers. The goals of the decision maker are guided by his/her principles and hence it is important to understand that a certain course of action should be developed where those beliefs don’t interfere with organizational decision making or else the result may not represent the needs of the organization (Beach, 1998). In the normal course of action, it is thought that decision making processes in organizations are similar to gambles. They have inherent risk in them, which largely affect the outcome of decisions. Higher risks denote higher returns as well, hence employees and managers use fundamental analysis techniques and their intuition to reach a decision and then act upon it. The image theory is widely applied in decision making processes of organizations. On the other hand, the rational choice theory is a sociological theory that is concerned with the role of progressive self-interest at time of decision making. According to this theory, people take those decisions through which they are realizing the benefits as well as costs of their decisions and act accordingly. The decisions with the greatest benefits are favored; hence the organization is able to apply strategic choices in accomplishing its goals. The available information regarding the issue at hand is an important determinant of the available options for the decision makers (Archer & Tritter, 2000). The above mentioned theories are important for the organization because decision making processes do not take into account the viewpoint of individuals. Organizational behavior theorists have developed their models of decision making, based on fundamental and intuitive analysis. However, they fail to realize the importance of inherent beliefs and thoughts that a person may have and how those thoughts and beliefs may influence the decisions that those people are taking. Understanding and appreciating the fact that humans are rational and will take the most favorable choice for their benefit is important in ensuring that the decisions made are acceptable across different spheres within the organization (Huczynski & Buchanan, 2007). Organizational behavior deals with the manner in which individuals and organizations interact, with each influencing the other. The decision making process is significant in the accomplishment of organizational goals. Rational choice and the image theory are significant to organizational behavior especially due to their impact on decision making. Decisions made through rational choice are the best that match the organizational needs. On the other hand, image theory is significant in analyzing the decisions so that the best can be acted upon. Organizational decision making is highly dependent on this analysis. The image theory is therefore a fundamental determinant of organizational behavior. Successful organizations integrate the two theories in their decision making processes. They allow all the important aspects of decision making such as risks, uncertainties and the most favorable approach to be addressed; hence the goals can be accomplished through broad based strategies that define organizational behavior (Zev, 1992). Question 4: In terms of leadership research, define the following: trait, constitutive, situationalist, contingency? Which (if any) is best and why? Trait theory, in terms of leadership, focuses on the various traits, habitual patterns, emotions and beliefs of the people which are necessary to have leadership qualities in them. According to this theory, traits are an important part of the personality of an individual, and highly different in different kinds of people. They also influence the behavior of those individuals. Emotional intelligence among leaders allows the leader to appreciate diversity among subordinates, which is significant for success to be accomplished in leadership (Hersey et al. 1999) Constitutive leadership outlines the importance of followers for leadership. It focuses on how important it is to have followers for a leader to progress. The leader has the opportunity as well the responsibility to access the environment, analyze the positivity and negativity of a situation and act accordingly. It also includes passing on this knowledge to their followers. Constitutive leader hop theory talks about how a leader has to sell their ideas to the followers in such a manner that they totally believe in, only then will the leader be called a leader and will be followed by masses. Therefore, the sender and the receiver are equally important. Leadership communication is of paramount importance in this leadership style (Wilson, 2010). Hersey-Blanchard situational leadership model is focused about how leadership has no set rules and regulations and a set pattern. The situational model focuses on leadership strategies whereby the leader becomes effective through motivating their followers to adhere to their instructions. Leadership is characterized by flexibility whereby the leaders vary their focus on the organizational activities depending on the stage of follower maturity. This depends on the capability and willingness of the followers to undertake the particular tasks allocated to them (Hersey & Blanchard, 1999). The situational leadership model postulates that different situations outline different methods of leadership. In order to be an effective leader, a person should have great analytical skills and he/she should be able to analyze the environment/ particular situation and then come to a decision in regard to the necessary cause of action. Fiedler’s contingency leadership model postulates that leadership is difficult to transform. According to the contingency theory, situations dictate the kind of leadership that is needed for successful implementation (Miner, 2007). It is similar to situational leadership theory as both talks about situation aspect of a decision making when it comes to a leader. No set pattern of leadership is present; every situation commands a different set of rules, a different set of emotions and a different set of decisions. The optimal leadership style is dependent upon various external and internal factors which are contingent to the situation at hand. Situational leadership is the best among the leadership styles since it allows flexibility so that the leadership style matches the needs of the subordinates. The four leadership styles that can effectively be applied for success to be accomplished through this model include; directing, coaching, supporting and delegating. They override the leadership styles in the trait, constitutive and contingency theories. Directing is mainly adopted by leaders who work with subordinates whose competency and commitment are of a low level. Employees in such a case are usually unable to accomplish tasks or may have the capability but are unwilling to use their knowledge to perform tasks effectively. Under such circumstances, the leader may be compelled to adopt a directive style whereby he/she sets targets and directs the employees on what to do, how to do it and the time to be taken for the accomplishment of these tasks (Hersey & Blanchard, 1999). Coaching is a leadership style that mainly applies to employees whose competence and motivation are slightly high. They might be unable to perform particular tasks even though they have interest in working (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2007). The leader understands that the performance of employees can be improved through additional learning. Coaching is usually focused on giving the employees additional skills to improve their competence. Supporting usually applies to followers who are competent but show signs of insufficient commitment. In other words, they may have the desired skills but may not be willing to utilize their expertise to the fullest (Kouzes & Posner 2007). The leader in such a situation needs to understand the causes of a low level of commitment. In certain instances, there might be feelings of uncertainty and insecurity among the employees, which make them loose the motivation needed to accomplish tasks effectively. The supportive leadership style is mainly focused on developing a strong relationship between the leader and the employees. Delegating is usually applicable for the employees who are both highly committed and competent in the workplace. They can perform tasks on their own without supervision or continuously being directed. Such employees are usually satisfied with their work and derive much enthusiasm from performing their day to day duties in the work place. They are able to meet the target on their own and therefore there is usually no need for the leader to maintain focus on their tasks or developing strong relationships (Kouzes & Posner 2007). The four leadership styles in the situational model override the Question 5: Outline two content theories of motivation and two process theories. Of the four, which (if any) is best and why? Content theories are some of the widely accepted theories in business and psychological world. Most of the newer generation theories believe in the fact that motivation is the driving force behind all initiatives that are taken. It is more like the driving force to fulfill the needs that compels a man to make decisions and act forward. The more need he or she feels to complete and satisfy the desired need, the more motivation he or she will have to work for it. Hence, contentment is one of the biggest drivers of work. Conversely, a need that has already been satisfied will not need increase or develop any motivation (Hersey et al. 2007) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs One very important and renowned content theory is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. It is one of the earliest and the mostly applied theories in contemporary organizations. It was developed by Abraham Maslow and it categorizes the various human needs in to a hierarchical structure. On the base come the physiological needs of fulfilling the major biological needs of an individual. This would include food, water air and shelter. The next tomes the safety needs; a person needs to realize that it is safe in the environment, with somebody he or she can rely on, in order to move up the hierarchy. If the person does not feel safe, he or she will not be able to work with the same dedication and motivation. He or she needs the absence of pain and requires a stable environment where they can live in peace. The third hierarchy is the belongingness that is important as a person would want to feel wanted and belong to somebody. The fourth is the fulfillment of self esteem; this can happen through personal achievement and goal achievement. The final stage is self-actualization where the individual works for the better of the society, all the basic needs are fulfilled and the person realizes the true potential (Fiona, 2010) Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Herzbergs Two Factor theory is another content theory that focuses on the fact that there are there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction. On the other hand there are a certain number of factors that cause job-dissatisfaction. Therefore, in an organization to increase the motivation, the factors that cause dissatisfaction should be removed whereas the factors that increase job satisfaction should be increased (Maidani, 1991). Process theories on the other hand, postulate that motivation is a cognitive process and focuses majorly on the behavioral processes that motivate an individual. Vroom’s expectancy theory is a kind of process theory that states individuals have their own goals which may be different from the goals of the organization; therefore, it is important to harmonize and mix the goals of the organization with the goals of the people to have maximum effect. Equity theory is another process theory that talks about the fact that a person would judge a situation and his inputs and outputs relative to the action of others in the organization. If the person believes that he or she is being paid less for the work he does, he or she will feel de-motivated. The process theories work better as they are more rational and one can understand them better. They are dependent on the psychology of the person, the day to day activities as well as organizational behavior theories (Hickson & Pugh, 1996). References Archer, M. S., & Tritter, J. Q.. 2000. Rational Choice Theory. Resisting Colonization. London and New York: Routledge Beach, L. R. 1998. Image Theory: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.  Billett, S 2009. Conceptualizing Learning Experiences: Contributions and Mediations of the Social, Personal and Brute, Mind, Culture and Activity Vol. 16, 1 pp 32-47 Braham, J. (1995) Creating a learning organisation London: Kogan Page Fiona, W. 2010. Organizational Behavior and Work: A critical Introduction. Oxford University Press. Garratt, B., (1999) “The Learning Organisation 15 years on: some personal reflections”, The Learning Organization, Vol. 6, 5 pp 202-206 Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H, (1999). Leadership and the One Minute Manager, William Morrow Hersey, P., Blanchard, K.H, and Johnson, D.E., (2007). Management of Organizational Behavior: Leading Human Resources, Prentice Hall. Hickson D. J. & Pugh D. S. (1996). Management Worldwide: The Impact of Societal Culture on Organizations around the Globe, Penguin Group. Huczynski, A.A. & Buchanan, D.A. (2007). Organizational Behaviour, Pearson Education. Kouzes, J. M. & Posner B. Z. (2007). The leadership challenge, Wiley Maidani, E. A. 1991. Comparative study of Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory of job satisfaction among public and private sectors, Public Personnel Management Marquardt, M. J. (1996) Building the Learning Organization, New York: McGraw-Hill. Miner, J. 2007. Organizational Behavior: From Theory to Practice. M.E. Sharpe Pedler, M. (1995). “A guide to the learning organization”. Industrial and Commercial Training 27(4): 21-25. Pedler, M., and Aspinwall, K., (1998) A Concise Guide to the Learning Organisation, London: Lemis and Crane. Pedler M, Burgoyne J and Boydell J, 1997. The Learning Company, McGraw Hill. Senge, P. M. 1990. The Fifth Discipline. London: Century Business. Wilson, F. (2010) Organizational Behavior and Work: A critical Introduction. Oxford University Press. Zev, M. 1992. Decision Making: Alternatives to Rational Choice Models, Sage Publications, Inc. Read More