Landscape Design in Mediterranean Climates - Essay Example

Sustainable and Functional Landscape Design in Mediterranean Climates Sustainability and Functional Design Sustainability is the goal that through the process of societal advancement and construction, we maintain the integrity of the environment in which our advancement takes place. A sustainable environment is one in which the intricacies of native ecosystems are protected and life forms are encouraged to thrive. This includes animal and plant life, soil nutrition and natural water resources of a region. Human impact on the environment is inevitable. The earliest peoples and cultures developed into civilizations because of commercial agriculture and domestication. We have civilization because we are able to distort the natural environment for our benefit. Functional landscapes are those that necessitate few resources in order to be maintained. The landscaping boom of the twentieth century in rural and urban environments altered the land through the use of supplementary resources. "Currently, we frequently select plants that are not highly adapted to dry climate regions and need regular care and attention to perform well" (ATTN). Since the onset of Conservation campaigns of the 1980s, we are quickly finding that the most functional landscapes are those whose native state has remained intact. The native species and their particular interactions with water, light, and soil in Mediterranean climates are those that landscape architects are returning to now, for their inherent ability to succeed in arid or semi-arid environments with relatively little rainfall. The ability to design functional landscapes around the parameters of native environments is the landscaper's role in sustainability. Planning and Design Green Landscaping In order to be considered functional and sustainable, design concepts in both rural and urban areas should be guided by bioregionalism. Bioregionalism is the idea that life species native to specific regions or microclimates are those suited to the given environment. The coupling of those life systems and its environment creates a self-sustaining ecosystem and necessitates no use of additional resources. The scientific concept of bioregionalism is used in practice for landscape architects and known as green landscape design. Green landscape design is a sub-discipline of landscape design. Like green building, it is setting a new, more environmentally friendly standard for its parent field. The field generally emphasizes the use of native plants to restore or maintain natural habitats and the healthy functioning of ecosystems. (Kravitz 2006) The methods taken at the initial planning stages determine the forthcoming sustainability of the areas altered. Responsible techniques taken at the design stage will ensure that while alterations in landscape take place, it is with little or no detriment to the land's natural state. During this architectural conception, the landscaper must endeavor to maintain the integrity of the natural ecosystem. A benefit of returning landscapes to their natural states is that few natural resources are needed. Watering and supplemented nutrients like mulch and fertilizers are kept to a minimum. This principle encompasses a landscape designer's use of xeriscaping, turfgrasses, hardscaping, plant location, and plant selection. Soil nutrition and water conservation are part of the bioregion to consider. Designers reconstruct landscapes using their natural biology. The ability to maintain constructed landscapes with minimal additional resources is the concept of a sustainable/functional environment. Xeriscaping Xeriscaping is an ideal technique within Mediterranean climates and its microclimates. The process is carried out by using drought tolerant plants. The potential in xeriscaping evolves from the choice of flora. The use of drought tolerant plants conserves water; these are often the native species that occur within the arid Mediterranean climate. In this, xeriscaping is dually advantageous. Less water is needed for the maintenance of the landscape design, and the natural biome is preserved. Native plants also save money by requiring less water. The purpose of xeriscaping is to evade water loss, or extensive water use. But to limit landscape designs to only those plants that don't need watering is difficult and confining. At the same time, irrigation done to support non-native varieties of plants may be problematic. In rural areas of Western Australia, the farming of cereals has popularly been assisted by sprinkler systems, although some believe sub-surface driplines would be more efficient (Taylor 2006). However, the effect of both irrigation schemes on native biomass has not been well tested. Little is known about the effects of changing the native biomass and its future ability to sustain itself. The issue is that "like any method of effluent irrigation, consideration must be given to the impacts of nutrients, salts, pathogens, and other potentially detrimental species in the water" (Taylor 2006). Turf grasses vs. Hardscaping Lawns are aesthetically pleasing. In arid climates, where soils are dry and typically dusty, lawns provide a colorful alternative to bare soil and are a cohesive fabric on which designs can be tailored. The use of lawns in arid climates like Western Australia is, by many opinions, not advisable. It is believed that in terms of water resources, most grasses will not thrive. When gauging the extent of lawn desired in garden areas, non-green options like hardscape pavers, stones, and wood may be attractive alternatives. However, avoidance of lawns is not the only option in achieving a functional landscape. Grasses are not created equally, some requiring less maintenance than others. Native plants, or drought-resistant vegetation, can be successful. In maintenance of Mediterranean landscapes, the importance of turfgrasses should be amplified. Erosion is a natural and unstoppable process. Although this is a natural occurrence of terrains, the process does not encourage sustainability of landscape. In urban environments, landscape design is detailed; any erosion has definite consequences. Mediterranean turfgrasses are a natural way to prevent erosion, thereby achieving sustainability with natural vegetation. The water-related advantage of turfgrasses within this climate zone, is that properly sewn, they filter groundwater from rainfall run-off. Mediterranean turf grasses function from a landscaping standpoint much the same way as mulch layered on top of the soil to compliment the water efficiency of plants and prevention of evaporation. These grasses need little percentage of the water they transport, thereby conserving water for other plants in the proximity. Collection of rainfall in urban areas is particularly important. Amid the variety of impervious surfaces - asphalt, concrete, pavement, parking lots, etc., -- water, the most important natural resource in landscaping, is literally wasted down the drain. Landscapers must find a way to utilize rainfall within areas where water is scarce, routing it to plants. Soil Nutrition Soil nutrition is an integral aspect of any functional ecosystem. Health at root level is imperative of lawns and plants in order to create a sustainable landscape. Two attitudes pertaining to bedding and nutrition are 1) It is advisable to supplement minerals in order to provide for plants, native or otherwise, and 2) Supplements are unnecessary if a landscape is made sustainable and returned to its native state, natural earth processes will ensure that the soil maintains itself. Basically, the question is to mulch or not to mulch. Regardless of specific design and utilization of plants, all fauna, regardless of climate, require minerals. "even in such amounts as are called trace. If the soil is not properly fertile, not teeming with microbes, the whole process goes out of kilter or grinds to a halt" (Capitol 2006). There are many recommendable organic products and fertilizers on the market. Compost, grass clippings, seaweed, vegetable scraps, wood ash, and other organic mulches provide a healthy ecological base for the plants used in landscaping. Mulches are helpful for water retention in any garden, and are particularly useful in the long dry summers in Mediterranean climates. Although organic soil supplements are preferable to fertilizers and chemicals, the effect of all soil additives perpetuate plant growth that can never be maintained naturally. Despite this, sustainable landscaping should not mean that we return all green areas to their original state and keep our hands off from then on. It is impractical to suggest that, and it would squelch the progress of society. What is best is to create green areas that are easily maintained, and at the same time sustain the natural occurring bioregions of those areas. Plant Location In landscaping, success is often reached through choice of plants and their position in relation to the sun and water source. In order to accomplish this efficiently and effectively, landscaping plans for zones within a given garden or perimeter should be drawn. Planting in north, south, east, or west positions will face plants with differing levels of winds. In addition to plant damage, winds can have a drying effect on plants, and drought-tolerant plants lose their ability to withstand harsh arid conditions. The planning of gardens, parks and urban landscapes should include the native species of bioregions, the goal is to tailor these plants in such a way as to make them aesthetically pleasing. To manipulate plant location in order to ensure green areas thrive does not change natural ecology, and meanwhile the tailored green area achieves its green potential. Plant Selection All plants chosen for Mediterranean green spaces are those that thrive within warm dry climates. All native species will meet the mark and dually return the land to its native state, with little future need of additional resources. Purpose/Functionality History of Conservation in Western Australia Sustainability of landscapes is desired by those who depend on their integrity in the future. Therefore, sustainability is limited to the relative advantage that sustained landscape offers to whom reaps economic benefits from working it, including the agriculturalists and ranchers. The Mediterranean climate is specific, and there are certain natural occurrences that threaten this climate and its microclimates more than other climates. In Western Australia, sustainability efforts came about in reaction to soil erosion and dryland salinity (Wallace 2003). To counter the threat of further land degradation, landholders of Western Australia took a handle on conservation techniques. "This modern form of Australian Landcare began in the early 1980s with impetus from the National Soil Conservation Program in 1983" (Lockie 1997). Societal Incentive Sustainability is done for humanist conservation purposes and for economic purposes. In the history noted, economic threat brought changes in agricultural landscaping techniques. To date, the economic utility of sustainability practices still reigns as the most effective motivation to adopt new design techniques. The goals of landholders are not exclusively economic. They are social and environmental as well. Many local governments create ordinances or working groups for conservation. Whether or not conservation techniques are adopted depends on the relative ease to landholders. Lawrence and Vanclay (1995) defined the rationalization process for agriculturalists to modernize their techniques for the purposes of conservation, that "In general terms, the more complex the innovation, the greater the resistance to adoption" (Lockie 2006). All these issues demonstrate that the profit motive is not the primary consideration in the evaluation of new technology, and that increasing the education of farmers is not alone likely to be an effective method of enhancing sustainability. Farming is a way of life more so than it is a business. (Lockie 2006) The communities that adopt conservation techniques desire conservation for the economic benefits, societal and environmental concern. Management of Landscapes Sustainability Education In any management practice, but particularly in concern to land sustainability, the management of land issues must be supplemented by prevention of problems. Here is the importance of education about sustainability. While students at all levels learn earth sciences, they can be advised on the integrity of natural terrains. Minds are then shaped around a respect for the environment, and they will naturally conceive ideas and construction that maintains the landscape whilst we use it. Carol Franklin, comments that "Sustainable design is not a reworking of conventional approaches and technologies, but a fundamental change in thinking and in ways of operating - you can't put spots on an elephant and call it a cheetah" (2005). This change in thinking most readily results from education. Water Resources Availability Groundwater and surface water are the two means through which landscapes receive their water needs. In terms of Mediterranean climates and microclimates, there occurs significantly lesser availability. Groundwater provided by aquifers occurs here as much as in other climate zones. However, due to lack of rain and hotter conditions, freshwater from rivers and lakes do not supply the same fluvial plain as they might encompass in humid or continental regions. In coastal areas like Western Australia, where freshwater is unavailable and a high percentage of water might be provided by saltwater, other techniques are used to make saltwater functional. Desalinization, like the aforementioned movements in Landcare in the 1980's, is a necessary process. However, carrying out desalinization is an intrusive, energy wasting process. "Reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, distillation, and vapor compression are processes used. All are complex, extremely energy consumptive, costly, difficult to operate and maintain, and present significant disposal problems caused by the brine concentrate" (National). The purpose of turning from desalination is to save the environment from further degradation. One of the benefits is that huge amounts of energy are conserved. Conservation Water Conservation is a required function of any community which hopes to sustain their landscapes. Water resources used for the land are often the same source that provides internal water, for drinking and consumption. Water conservation is an action of all members of a community. Here again, education serves to provide people with a model of sustainability. Importance of water to an ecosystem is two-fold. Water is necessary as its own element to the cellular health of every being on earth. It also functions as the means through which food nutrients arrive to aliment flora and fauna. Summary A sustainable and functional landscape may be measured by its long-term potential. The bioregion, comprised of its natural terrain and the composition of native plants, animals, and other microorganisms, should be able to maintain itself. In National Parks, this in itself is the meaning of sustainability. Land returns to as it was before human interaction. In more practical terms, urban and rural development cannot be reached without manipulating the environment. However, efforts can be done to make landscapes as sustainable as possible while being functional. In the 1980s, at the onset of Conservation practices, landowners in Western Australia turned to sustainable methods to cope with the harsh arid environment, when their previous methods had only caused degradation to the soil. This is a great example of how despite the arid, dry conditions of Mediterranean climates, communities within harsh climate zones do not have to quench their entrepreneurial spirit in order to conserve the environment. In urban landscaping, there are many techniques to create green spaces within dry climate zones whilst returning landscapes to their natural state, that which is sustainable. Xeriscaping, plant selection, plant location, soil nutrition, and the use of turfgrasses are all methods or tools utilized in the landscape design that create green areas in a Mediterranean climate. More importantly, they are non-intrusive methods of cultivation. Water conservation is done with similar intention. With less use of water resources, the landscape proves its natural ability to succeed long-term. In a world where natural resources are not infinite, it is a prudent economic choice to develop means by which landscapes can be self-sustained while still functional for societal progress. Bibliography Alrababah, M. A. (2006) Land use/cover classification of arid and semi-arid Mediterranean landscapes using Landsat ETM. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 27 (13) pp. 2703-2718. Capitol Wholesale Nursery, Inc. (2006) What is Sustainable Landscaping Retreived October 27, 2006: http//www.capitolwholesalenursery.com/Sustainability.html. Easton, V & Lynch M. (2006) Designed for Drier Times. Horticulture. 103 (6) August, pp. 48-53. Franklin, Carol (2005) Andropogan Associates, Ltd. Web source. October 28, 2006: http://www.adropogan.com. Gildemeister, H. (2001) Island Adventure. Horticulture. 98 (1) January, pp. 66-70. Hooke, J.M. (2006) Human impacts on fluvial systems in the Mediterranean region. Geomorphology. 79 (3-4), September, pp.311-335. Kravitz, C. (2004) Gardening in our Central Valley Mediterranean Climate. Public Works Department - City of Davis. Retrieved October 27, 2006: http//www.city.davis.ca.us/pw/water/garden.cfm. LCRA (2006) Energy, Water, Community Services. Lower Colorado River Authority. Retreived October 28, 2006: http//www.lcra.org. Lockie S. & Vanclay F., eds. (1997)Critical Landcare, Wagga: Centre for Rural Social Research, Charles Sturt University. National Park Service (2006). Guiding Principles of Sustainable Design. US Department of the Interior. Web Source, continually updated. Retrieved October 28, 2006: http://www.nps.gov/dsc/dsgncnstr/gpsd/. Ocampo, C. (2006) Field exploration of coupled hydrological and biogeochemical catchment responses and a unifying perceptual model. Advances in Water Resources. 29 (2) February, pp. 161-180. Pannell, D.J., Marshall, G., Barr, N., Curtis, A. Vanclay, F., Wilkinson, R. (2006) Understanding and promoting adoption of conservation practices by rural landholders. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture. 46(11) pp. 1407-1424. Sustainable Development International, Inc. (2006) Rise of Green Business. Sustainable Development International, Inc. Retreived October 26, 2006: http://www.smartoffice.com/gb4.htm. Taylor, K.S. & Anda M. (2006) Subsurface dripline tubing - an experimental design for assessing the effectiveness of using dripline to apply treated wastewater for turf irrigation in Western Australia. Desalination. 187 (1-3) January, pp. 375-385. Wallace, K. (2003) Confusing means with ends: A manager's reflection on experience in agricultural landscapes of Western Australia. Ecological Management & Restoration. 4 (1) April, pp. 23-28. Read More