The Bio-Psychological Model - Essay Example

Biopsychology is defined on the internet as: (www.biocrawler.com/encyclopedia/Biopsychology, Retrieved 08/04/06). "Psychobiology, also called biopsychology, is the scientific study of mental functioning and behaviour in relation to other biological processes, or put another way, of the effects of cognition, emotions, and experience on animal physiology. Psychobiology also studies the biology of behaviour and mental processes." Biological psychology is a relatively new way of scientific study of the biological bases of behaviour and mental states. As both "biological psychology" and "neuroscience" are studies of the nervous system and often use the same methodology (such as "Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging or fMRI"), it has always remain an anomaly to say whether biopsychology is actually a branch of neuroscience of whether they are one and same. Many researchers use both these terms interchangeably. Biological psychology is also commonly known as biopsychology, psychobiology, physiological psychology, behavioural neuroscience, and neurophysiology and these terms are often used interchangeably. Research Methods: Bio psychologists use empirical experiments to study changes in the nervous system activation in response to a stimulus. There are various techniques/ methods used to measure this activation (Abraham, F. D, 1992): -"Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging" commonly known as "fMRI" measures blood oxygenation in the brain and neuronal activity. - "Electroencephalography" or "EEG" measures electrical fields also called brain waves created by neuronal activity. - "Magneto encephalography" or "MEG" is the measurement of the magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain. The bio psychological model (D B Double, 1997): The main essence of this approach is to emphasize on the assessment of person. Although mind is contingent on the brain, the central therapeutic concern should be the life story of the individual patient interacting with others in the context of society and culture (Adler, N. E, Matthews, K. A, 1994) In this theory the rather vibrant nature of psychiatric infirmity is more highlighted, and is considered that was opposed to the idea that a hypothetical underlying lesion should be postulated just because mental disorders may seem unintelligible (CYNTHIA SCHUPAK, 2000). The following are the assumptions of the bio psychological model by Wilson (1993). (i) The boundary between mentally well and mentally ill people is fluid because normal people can become ill if exposed to sufficiently severe trauma According to this assumption there is an absolute differentiation between normality and mental illness. As an alternative the relative nature of the range between mental illness and normality is emphasised. (ii) Mental illness is conceived along a continuum of severity from neurosis through borderline conditions to psychosis In this assumption again, rather than viewing mental illnesses as separate discrete entities, the main emphasis is on an overlie between the various appearances of mental disorder. (iii) An untoward mixture of noxious environment and psychic conflict causes mental illness Psychosocial factors dominate in the understanding of the functions mental illness. For example schizophrenia is explained as a mal-adaptation that could be understood in terms of the patient's life experiences (Meyer 1906). A difficulty in explaining a mental illness in the psychological context does not necessarily means a brain abnormality. (iv) The mechanisms by which mental illness emerges in an individual are psychologically mediated Mental illness is not a single word analysis. The main emphasis is on a detailed human action analysis rather than a reductive analysis of physical cause (Bonnes, M Gianfranco, 1995). Advantages of Human Behaviour On Genetic Constitution Migration from traditional lifestyles and environments to more sedentary lifestyles and calorie-dense environments has, therefore, been posited to increase the likelihood of obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and related diseases (Bonnes, M Gianfranco, 1995). On Cardiovascular Function In both males and females in this research, high cardiovascular reactivity has been associated with increased risk for atherosclerosis. Light and colleagues have similarly focused on cardiovascular reactivity but have examined its relationship to hypertension and predisease indicators of hypertension such as left ventricular mass-essentially, the size of the muscle of the left ventricle of the heart (Engel, G.L, 1967). The risk of hypertension varies with the family history also. A test to check whether the stressful daily life routine would increase the risk of high blood pressure at old who have a family history of hypertension is conducted and the results were alarming. Results revealed that men with a positive family history of hypertension had a twofold increase in risk of elevated blood pressure over 10 years as compared with men with a negative family history (Bonnes, M Gianfranco, 1995). On Immune Activity Another arena of research that has emerged in part to improve experimental control and in part to address the health relevance of the changes in immune function found in psycho-neuro-immunological studies is wound healing (Appleton, J, 1975) An individual with a relax daily life routine posses a faster rate of healing of wounds compared to individuals who lead a more stressed life routine (Szasz,1972) On Disease: That social isolation is a major risk factor for morbidity and mortality from widely varying causes (Amylase, 2004). This relationship was obvious even after statistically controlling for known biological risk factors, social status, and baseline measures of health. The negative health consequences of social isolation were particularly strong among some of the fastest growing segments of the population: the elderly and the poor (Stuart Cathcart, Donald Pritchard, 1998). Research Methods: The following are the research methods used by bio-psychologist (Roth, M & Kroll, 1995): 1. Methods of Visualizing the Living Human Brain a. Contrast X-rays: In this form of X-rays technique, a chemical called contrast medium is given to the patient to help outline a specific body area on X-ray film. This chemical can be swallowed, given as an enema or injected into a vein. The contrast medium appears white on the X-ray film, and can produce a sharp outline of structures such as the digestive tract and the paths of blood vessels (Don C. Fowles, 1989). b. Computerized Axial Tomography Computed axial tomography commonly known as "CAT", is a medical imaging method employing tomography where digital processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the internals of an object from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation (Lewis,1995). c. Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( MRI ) MRI is a procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue (Gerard E. Bruder, 1998). MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as CT or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging. (Lewis, 1995) MRI VS. CT SCANS (John Edward,2002) Advantages of MRI No ionizing radiation exposure Better spatial resolution Horizontal, Frontal or Sagittal planes Disadvantages High Cost No metal d. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) A nuclear medicine technique for imaging certain radionuclides or radioisotopes. (Michael Marwitz, Gerhard Stemmler , 1998).This method can identify areas essentially anywhere in the body that exhibit "hot spots", which are sites of increased physiological activity, such as cancer cells. PET is used to study critically important elements of living tissue (eg, oxygen, nitrogen) and is commonly used for examinations of the brain and heart (Edward B Blanchard, 2004) PET VS. CT SCANS (John S. Wodarski, 2003) CT images brain structure. PET images brain activity. CT involves absorption of X-rays. PET involves emission of radiation by an injected or inhaled isotope. e. Functional MRI fMRI is a diagnostic scanning procedure that produces detailed, computerized images. It uses different contrast agents or dye to enhance the details of the images. The sequence of these images helps physicians to visualize the body's functioning, thus aids in making critical differential diagnosis (John S. Wodarski, 2003) It is a relatively new imaging procedure and uses radio waves and a strong magnetic field rather than x-rays to provide clear and detailed pictures of internal organs and tissues. fMRI helps to measure the quick, tiny metabolic changes that take place in an active part of the brain (Stuart Cathcart, 1998). Advantages over PET: (STERN, 2001) No injections given Structure and Function Shorter imaging time Better spatial resolution 3-D images 2. Recording Psycho physiological Signals a. Measures of Somatic Nervous System Activity The somatic nervous system is that part of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements through the action of skeletal muscles. The somatic nervous system consists of afferent fibres which receive information from external sources, and efferent fibres which are responsible for muscle contraction. (NICOLAS ROHLEDER, 2004) The activities of these systems are measured and recorded. b. Autonomic Nervous System Activity Autonomic Nervous System is a part of the nervous system that regulates involuntary vital functions, including cardiac muscle activity, smooth muscles and glands activity. The autonomic nervous system has two divisions: the sympathetic nervous system accelerates heart rate, narrow blood vessels, and raises blood pressure; the parasympathetic nervous system slows heart rate, increases intestinal etc. (Don C. Fowles, 1999). The measure of the activities of the Autonomic Nervous System also helps the physicians to make critical diagnosis. References: Abraham, F. D., Advanced instrumental discrimination learning apparatus, San Diego Community Education Resources Science Brief. 1, 1-7, 1992. Adler, N. E, Matthews, K. A, Why do some people get sick and some stay well Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 229-259, 1994. Appleton, J, The Experience of Landscape. Wiley, 1975. Bonnes, M Gianfranco, A Psycho-social Introduction. Translation by C. Montagna. Sage, 1995. CYNTHIA SCHUPAK, Mood as Mechanism, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Volume 907, Issue 1, Page 208-211, Apr2000. D B Double, Paradigm Shift in Psychiatry, 1999. Don C. Fowles, For Distinguished Contributions to Psychophysiology: David Lykken, Page 537-542, Sep1999. Edward B Blanchard Ph.D , Frank Andrasik Ph.D , John G Arena B.A , Debra F Neff B.S, Susan E Jurish Ph.D , Steven J Teders Ph.D , Nancy L Saunders B.A , Thomas P Pallmeyer B.A , Bruce C Dudek Ph.D , Lawrence D Rodichok M.D, A Bio-psycho-social Investigation of Headache Activity in a Chronic Headache Population, Volume 24, Issue 2, Page 79-87, Mar2004. Engel, G.L., 'The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine', Science, 129-136, 1967. Gerard E. Bruder, Craig E. Tenke, James P. Towey, Paul Leite, Regan Fong, Jonathan E. Stewart, Patrick J. McGrath, Frederic M. Quitkin, Brain ERPs of depressed patients to complex tones in an oddball task: Relation of reduced P3 asymmetry to physical anhedonia, Volume 35, Issue 1, Page 54-63, Jan1998. John S. Wodarski, PhD Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, Pg 15-25, 2003. Lewis, A.Health as a social concept. British Journal of Sociology, 109-124, 1995. Meyer, A, Fundamental concepts of dementia praecox. British Medical Journal, 757-759,1906. Michael Marwitz, Gerhard Stemmler, On the status of individual response specificity, Volume 35, Issue 1, Page 1-15, Jan1998. NICOLAS ROHLEDER, Psychosocial Stress-Induced Activation of Salivary Alpha-Amylase, An Indicator of Sympathetic Activity, Volume 1032, Issue 1, Page 258-263, Dec2004. Roth, M & Kroll, The reality of mental illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1986. STERN, L. M., WALKER, M. K., SAWYER, M. G., OADES, R. D., BADCOCK, N. R., & SPENCE, J. G., A controlled crossover trial of fenfluramine in autism, 31, 569-587, 2001. Stuart Cathcart, Donald Pritchard, Relationships Between Arousal-Related Moods and John Edward, Episodic Tension-Type Headache: A Biopsychological Study , Volume 38, Issue 3, Page 214-221, Mar1998. Szasz, T.S. The myth of mental illness, London: Paladin, 1972 www.biocrawler.com/encyclopedia/Biopsychology, Retrieved 08/04/06. Read More