Compare and contrast two European countries - Essay Example

College: COMPARE AND CONTRAST ANY TWO EUROPEAN COUNTRIES In most cities and countries in the world, the issue of social exclusion rests at the centre of controversy and concern. Though it can be argued that its existence is fading out of the modern society, there are traces of it in many countries. The European countries also fall victim of this. Before going further into the cause of disagreement of this issue, let us look at the meaning of social exclusion. The term is closely related to marginalization. There exists a thin line between the two terms. Social exclusion relates to alienation of some people within a society, which is connected, to a person's social class, educational level, the standards of living, and how these factors affect their access to various opportunities. (Aspospori etal, 2003, p.47) To some extend it stretches to the disabled, minority men, women, and the elderly. There are planned forums in societies that ensure that anyone who deviates in any perceived way from the norm of a population becomes subject to those subtle forms of social exclusion. Social marginalization refers to exclusion from meaningful participation in the society. This is based on reasons that the labor market cannot accommodate them. It provides one of the most dangerous forms of oppression. It causes severe material deprivation. The minorities such as people with disabilities both physical and mental, women, racial minorities, aboriginal communities, elderly individuals, single mothers and homosexuals are all victims of marginalization. This is due to dominant discourses within the structures of the society. (Chamberlayne etal, 2002, p.23) Social exclusion and marginalization have been intensified by the several factors, which includes the following. The increasing disparities in educational and skill levels have led to several people staying out of the labor market because judgment is based on qualification. Long-term unemployment poses the individuals to the risk of segregation in the society. They may be denied access to opportunities due to their economic status. Male joblessness is another rising issue. This is brought about by the emphasis placed on gender equality. In the effort to combat the past inequalities, much has been done on the women and girl child part hence putting the male species at stake. (Atherton, 2003, p.81) Since more and more women are getting educated and are given first priority in the job sector men are at the risk of losing jobs. Another factor is feminization of an increasingly casualised work force. The widening gaps in income levels are creating bigger possibilities of social exclusion. The increasing gaps in income levels are building on social gaps between the rich and the poor. The rich gets richer and the poor is getting poorer. This makes it difficult for the poor to cope with the fast moving life. People who cannot fit in the high-class life are locked out to belong to a rather low class. (Atherton, 2003, p.85) Deteriorating health and life expectancies for the poor society members is on the increase. The poor cannot access to health services most likely after the superiors deny them them. Poor health leads to short life expectancy. The poor standards of living contribute largely to the rising mortality rates among the poor. The rich has enough income to eat well, have a dignified life, a good health and their life expectancy is higher compared to the life expectancies of the poor members in the society. (Ferguson, 1990, p.24) Social exclusion is at the centre of public discourse in all countries across the European Union. Most researchers and scholars use past data to create comparable indicators of social exclusion. Most of the comparable dynamic information was on a wide range of demographic, social and economic indicators across Europe. Almost half the employed age population is disadvantaged on at least one point in time. Very few people are likely to be sidelined on a large number of social exclusion indicators. To navigate through the issue, I will use the United Kingdom and Albania to compare and contrast the extend of damage on the society. (Ferguson, 1990, p.27) Looking at the United Kingdom social exclusion is based largely on the financial capability of an individual, which in turn brings out the forms of social exclusion and marginalization. Two fifth of the working age population is disadvantaged on two or more indicators. Research shoes that three percent were disadvantaged on four or more and none is disadvantaged on all indicators. The economic indicators that face the individuals are based on financial status, material wealth and housing situation. Individuals who are affected by any of the economic indicators or the mental health indicator are more likely to have been disadvantaged on at least one other indicator. (Gradstein, 2005, p.32) A closer look at the relationship between indicators or rather measures of social exclusion using factor analysis reveal three distinctive and integral elements of social exclusion. Household economic deprivation, which comprises the financial status, material wealth and housing situation, forms the first element of social exclusion. The second is personal civic exclusion. It comprises the neighborhood perception and social relations indicators. The third is personal health exclusion. It comprises the physical and mental health indicators. Of all the three, the relationship between the health indicators emerged the strongest. This was followed by the relationship between the economic indicators. (Aspospori, 2003, p.51) Income poverty is more pronounced in the United Kingdom. It results to household economic deprivation and at least one other form of economic disadvantage. It is experienced by approximately five percent of the working age population. At a general glance, experience of household economic deprivation is linked greatly to being out of work. That not being enough these live in households where no one works. Employment is the factor associated with the avoidance of household economic deprivation. This is probably as a way of acquiring and accumulating economic resources. (Barnes, 2005, p.60) The groups of people most likely to face household economic deprivation are the lone parents, households with children and those living alone. Most of them have experienced obstacles to work such as childcare and had no other potential workers to rely on due to living with children or alone. In addition, they may have had to provide for other non-working household members. Personal civic exclusion that is a disadvantage related to the neighborhood perception and social relations is experienced by 4 percent approximation of the working age population. (Barnes, 2005, p.62) Studies show that those in income poverty are three times likely, than those above the poverty line to face civic exclusion. The better of in the society and in the neighborhood view the unfortunate as less worth probably because of their living status. This could be in terms of the housing style. The people rather the class of individuals they associate with is as well considered. Are they high class or are they poor This in turn determines the esteem accorded to individuals. According to the multivariate analysis, low income was not significantly associated with civic exclusion. The experiences of individual civic exclusion are most greatly linked to living in a lone parent household and being unemployed. (Somerville, 2000, p.49) This also linked to living in poor housing condition and physical ill health. In this country the state of being unemployed is associated with lack of social relationships. In addition to these, dissatisfaction with the neighborhood as well as low income and economic deprivation are also factors. This further suggests attempts to include individuals into job market. The labor market is seen as a channel to promote civic ties. Although having good quality housing in which to attend social events is valued. Good physical health with which to attend social occasions away from the household seems to be satisfying and crucial. (La Cava etal, 2000, p.61) Personal health exclusion is defined as a disadvantage according to physical health and mental health. It is experienced by an approximation of 3 percent of the working age population. Personal health exclusion and income poverty have a prevalent relationship. Those who are income poor are twice lucky to have experienced personal health exclusion than the non-income poor. This could be due to their inability to cater for their bills in relation to the expensive medical care. Income poverty is significantly associated with the experience of personal health exclusion. This reflects the inability to work and consequently the reliance on health-related benefits as was lack of social relations. (Marmot etal, 2006, p.78) More so having a low education that is possibly linked to more physically demanding employment and being female is a worthy cause. This could be as a result of women who are more inclined than men to seek health advice. The benefits from such inclinations accrue to the women. Disadvantages that cut through all the three integral elements of social exclusion is known as multiple disadvantages and it ranges among the most severe forms. Measuring the wide-ranging current multi-dimensional disadvantage on at least one indicator in all three of the integral elements of social exclusion revealed that only a small subset of afflicted individuals. (Madanipour, 2002, p.96) An approximation of a 3 percent of the working age population was disadvantaged on at least one indictor in all three elements at any one time. The sub group of the working population that is prone to such experiences was lone parents who have dependent children. The education status is a useful and important predictor of wide ranging disadvantage as the main activity status did. Persons with a degree or higher education are disproportionately likely to avoid such experiences. The opposite of this is the case for those with no academy education at all. (Madanipour, 2002, p.98) The cases of lone parents may have resulted from divorce cases, which at the time of occurrence, there were children who needed to be taken care of. On the other hand, single parents for whatever cause are not seen as capable and the respect accorded to them is minimized. In the modern day life, parenthood is a phenomenon that an individual can choose upon, one can decide to be single forever or get married and divorce later. Above every reason for social exclusion of the forms discussed above people who have a connection to the labor market are at lower risks of experiencing wide range forms of disadvantage. (Mollenkopf, 2005.p.101) A study suggested that with a connection to the labour market, there is avoidance of such wide spread forms of disadvantages particularly so far those in full time work. Looking at Albania along the same lines of social exclusion it comes out differently. Social exclusion is mostly based on gender abuse among other things that did not feature prominently in the United Kingdom. The marginalized individuals in the society are vulnerable. On the vice-versa, the vulnerable are the marginalized. A number of social disputes bring about the social exclusion and marginalization in the Albanian society. (Murphy, 2005, p.89) In the United Kingdom social exclusion, seem to come about from income poverty, unemployment, disability and health. Unlike Albania where the issues are central to the family structures and gender issues which feature prominently in the systems of living. In Albania, the youth are at risk of abandoning school. This exposes increasing number of youth to the risk of education exclusion and street begging and in the case of girls, gender abuse. In any city or country nobody who begs in the streets who is of greater significance to others. (Chakravarty&D'Ambrosio, 2006, p.95) Nobody who is a social misfit who has a comfortable life with others who have self-respect and dignity hence social exclusion. The increased levels of school drop out are a crucial factor in the emergence of illiteracy. This has further effects leading to lack of economic priorities and opportunities as well as the general countries culture. It is seen as the backbone of the people, the framework for individuals and the society in general. The drop out rate is increasing due to the destruction of infrastructure, disruptions caused by migration, safety concerns and a lack of confidence in the ability of the Albanian education system. It has not been in a position to provide social and economic mobility. (Chakravarty&D'Ambrosio, 2006, p.98) There are institutionalized and abandoned children. This kind of group includes children abandoned by their parents, orphans, and those with physical handicaps and/or disability. Under the communist regime, such children were strongly penalized and their condition does not have any better. The numbers of these children are increasing today and they are much far marginalized. This is due to the disruptions and consequent breakdown of family relationships, which are their only survival guarantors. Comparing this with the United Kingdom, such children will not be able to participate in the labour market when they come at the working age. This being linked to their inability to have social relationships. (Aspospori etal, 2003, p.61) In Albania, the marginalized children will grow up with a stigma that will find its way into their adult lives. They will not be as productive as they would have been if was not for the social exclusion. Young men are at risk of criminal behavior. This group is emerging from the collaboration of traditional models, which defines a man as a courageous being if he uses weapons, and the vulnerability of the judiciary and police to enforce the laws. This is brought about by the uncertainties and opportunities created by transition. Unlike adults, the young people do not value hard work and sacrifice. The adults in Albania have lost authority. This has created chances for the young people to rebel and unite in gang bend on violence. (Aspospori etal, 2003, p.62) They feel free to rebel for the sake of self-assertion as much as for easy earnings. Effects of peer pressure also seem to be strong at work. In turn, young people may be convicted for the crimes committed. A convict is seen as a dangerous person in the society and this builds on social exclusion. In Albania, young men are at risk of drug addiction. The group of recent origin and staying in urban centers is rapidly expanding in smaller cities. The urbanities are the politically correct word for the group. Albania and Italy are emerging to be one of the major drug crossroads in Europe. Cannabis is widely cultivated in the south and heroin is coming from Turkey. Much importance is being attached to drugs and they are becoming a status symbol, among the urban and peri-urban youth. (Atherton, 2003, p.69) Since most of these must be having flowing cash resources, a mentally of "richness" is the grouping factor for the youth in this category. The situation has gone further worse because the legislative framework to combat drug use is incomplete and complicated. The abandoned elderly is another group of people rising in the Albanian society. In the world many societies' values elderly care among other traditions. There is breakdown of extended families due to massive migration, which is resulting in the neglect of elderly in the society. Inadequate and unprepared social institutions to care for the elderly is making the situation more complicated and difficult (Ferguson, 1990, p.87) The demands for assistance and the increasing numbers of the old who do not have children are rendering the whole situation in a mess. In addition, the old who have children and are not supported by them or have migrated is pushing the situation further. This has resulted to many elderly people being forced to live in solitude and is at risk of being abandoned. Once the old are abandoned the levels of social exclusion in Albania rises. (Gradstein, 2005, p.115) Young women are at risk of prostitution. Large numbers of women in Albania are coerced into prostitution through the promise of marriage or work abroad. This makes the condition a complete mechanism of marginalization for a young woman. This is because none of her family on either side would accept her. This kind of marginalization is one of the two main forms of gender abuse. The other form of gender abuse comes about with adult women with male protection. After the fall of the communist regime, this category re-emerged in the society. This improved the condition of women in terms of sheltering them from gender abuse, by giving them economic opportunities and breaking down the partrichal system. (La Cava etal, 2000, p.125) During the transition, the independence of women has eroded. Making own decision or living alone is prohibited for women. Most women who engage in prostitution have their root in abandonment and divorce by a husband, when the male kin in her family refuses to take her back to the family home. Italy is a place of transit for Albanians on their way to other European nations and this affects Italy in the same way as Albania. Changes in the family structure have led to women being married off at an early age. (Marmot etal, 2006, p.109) In the past strong patriarchal orientation of family life gave the male species the opportunity to rule local, political and economic decision-making. Old clan based laws (Kanun) governed power relations in mountainous areas beyond the reach of central government administration. In this system, women were seen as property and were subject to various ritual humiliations within the family. They had to obey the male members. (Mollenkopf, 2005, p.116) The environment was oppressive but women exercised informal control of the household especially as the principle agents of socialization. The times of women exclusion and marginalization are changing. In urban areas and market economy today, both men and women are experiencing uncertainty on respective roles and consequent loss of self-esteem. Varying family structures based on their location and ages as well as migration history are included in the households. Marriage age is dropping rapidly due to emigration and the transition. This makes men a coveted rare asset. This influences education of young females who are betrothed and married before finishing school. This limit on their opportunities (Murphy, 2005, p.127) The birth of male children could mean nothing elsewhere but not in Albania. It secured a woman's position in the marriage. Divorce being more common nowadays, it still bears a social stigma and severe economic consequences for women. On the other hand, husbands are encouraged by the community to re-marry. More and more women are becoming single parents due to emigration. All the factors discussed under the Albania society are the major flag bearers of social exclusion. Schools are important for instilling social change. In Albania, the school system has suffered much during the transition. Significant deterioration has occurred during the first half of 1997. (Somerville, 2000, p.133) The crisis of the schools penetrates deeply in Albania. This could be because of learning having traditionally high values and academic achievement being principal to social and economic mobility. All levels of Albanian schools (primary, middle and secondary) lack minimal accepted physical resources. This ranges from buildings to basic supplies and equipment. The diminishing quality of instruction is the most critical problem. The payment is very low and the working conditions are difficult. This has driven young professionals away from achieving careers. The effect of this can be traced to the massive unemployment of educated people. (Murphy, 2005, p.129) In conclusion, the United Kingdom and Albanian's social exclusion and marginalization is linked to the culture of the individual society and the level of development of each society. While one is bothered mainly by gender issues, which impacts negatively on women, the other is concerned with disadvantages in terms of social welfare and well-being. Whatever the case, social exclusion and marginalization remains a painful experience to the individuals. Lastly, social exclusion may be largely attributed to the United Kingdom while marginalization should rest with Albania where it features prominently. (Atherton, 2003, p.94) LIST OF REFERENCES Aspospori. E etal 2003. Dynamics of social Exclusion in Europe: Comparing Austria and Germany. Edward Elgar Publishing. Atherton. J 2003. Marginalization. SCM. Barnes. M 2005. Social Exclusion in Great Britain: An Emperical Investigatiion and Comparison. Ash gate Publishing Ltd. Chakravarty. S & D'Ambrosio. C 2006. 'The measurement of social Exclusion', Vol. 52, No. 3. pp. 377-398, Indian Statistical Institute. Kolkata. ChamberLayne. P etal 2002. Biography and Social Exclusion in Europe: Experience And Life Journeys. The Policy Press. Ferguson. R 1990. Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary. MIT Press. Gradstein. M 2005: 'The Political Economy of Social Exclusion with Implications for Immigration Policy ', Vol. 19, no. 2 pp. 327-344. Springer. Berlin. La cava. G etal 2000. Albania: Filling the Vulnerability Gap. World Bank Publicatioin Madanipour. A etal 2002. Social Exclusion in European Cities: Processes, Experiences And Responses. Routledge. Marmot. Metal 2006. Social Determinants of Health. Oxford University Press. Mollenkopf. H 2005. Enhancing Mobility in later Life. Personal Coping, Environmental Resources. IOS Press. Murphy. C 2005. Global Institutions, Marginalization and Development. Routledge. Somerville. P 2000. Social relations and social Exclusion: Rethinking Political Economy. Routledge. Targosz. S etal 2003. 'Lone Mothers, Social Exclusion and Depression', Vol.33, No.4.p. 715 - 722. Cambridge University Press. Weil. S etal 2000. Unemployed Youth and Social Exclusion in Europe. Learning For Inclusion Ashgate Publishing Ltd. Read More