A Comparison of Aquinas and Maximus' Theories of Human and Divine Will - Essay Example

A Comparison of Aquinas and Maximus Theories of Human and Divine Will Bible citations are from the New Revised Standard Version Bible, copyright 1995, by the Oxford University Press in the United States of America. St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Maximus the Confessor share some of the same views on human and Divine will. The first aspect to be looked at will be the effect of knowledge on human and Divine will. When looking at knowledge, truth must also be discussed. Then a look at both authors views on Jesus Christs human and Divine will will be examined. The image of God is important in understanding the duality of Jesus will. Finally, the influences on both mens views will be looked at. The debate about human and Divine will has raged for centuries. This paper will discuss St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Maximus the Confessors input on this issue. Will can be defined as choice or determination. Divine will is what a Divine being, God, chooses or determines. Even though it sounds clear enough, the question then becomes; who is God or what components make up God? This leads to a discussion on knowledge about God, including what is the true knowledge. Then influences on mens perception of true knowledge, like Plato or Aristotle need to be examined. Human will, or human choice or determination, appears less complicated, but in reality is not. The reason human will is not clear cut comes down to how much Divine will influences mans thoughts. This factor is unknown. Opinions range from human will that is totally free to human will being guided by completely by Divine will. Aquinas and Maximus agree that humans have a will, or choice when dealing with issues of God. Knowledge and Truth Aquinas asserted “that for the knowledge of any truth whatsoever man needs Divine help, that the intellect may be moved by God to its act.”1 Despite this statement, Aquinas thought that humans have a natural instinct to have knowledge without Divine revelation. Aquinas also acknowledged that Divine revelation occurs from time to time, "especially in regard to faith.”2 This means that true knowledge comes from God, but humans can also reason things out with and without Divine revelation. Maximus was also of the mind that humans can reason or work out issues by looking unto God. Maximus wrote: Through the working out of the commandments the mind puts off the passions. Through the spiritual contemplation of visible realities it puts off impassioned thoughts of things. Through the knowledge of invisible realities it puts off contemplation of visible things. And finally this it puts off through knowledge of the Holy Trinity.3 This quote could also be interpreted two ways. First, human will chooses to follow God, because of the Bible. Secondly, human will chooses to follow God, because Gods Divine will influences humans. Maximus felt that knowledge comes in an abstracting from the realm of the senses into one of intellect.4 Maximus thought that any projection onto an thought of possible apprehension makes out perception of this object false.5 This shows that Maximus thought how an idea appears to the mind, through the five senses, is ascetic. When interpreted means the need for a mediator is not negated after the recovery of clear thought or reasoning. Maximus wrote: When the intellect gives attention to conceptual images of physical objects, it is assimilated to the configuration of each image. If it contemplates these objects spiritually, it is transformed in the various ways according to which of them it contemplates. But once it is established in God, it loses form and configuration altogether for by contemplating Him who is simple it becomes simple itself and wholly filled with spiritual radiance.6 Maximus asserted even though human will could be manipulated by experiences, Divine revelation, and human thought into choosing faith in God, Jesus Christ is still needed for salvation. In the Bible, knowledge comes from God. All knowledge is equated with knowing God. For example: God answered Solomon, ‘Because this was in your heart, and you have not asked for possessions, wealth, honour, or the life of those who hate you, and have not even asked for long life, but have asked for wisdom and knowledge for yourself that you may rule my people over whom I have made you king,7 This is the passage where God offered Solomon anything. Solomon, of course, chose knowledge and wisdom. Another verse states “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction.”8 These two examples show how Divine will and human will both result in knowledge. Divine will or revelation gives knowledge, like with Solomon, and human will, as in the example of fearing the Lord, give knowledge. The Bible also speaks of truth. God is truth. Truth is the only thing God speaks, not lies. For example: I did not speak in secret,     in a land of darkness; I did not say to the offspring of Jacob,     ‘Seek me in chaos.’ I the Lord speak the truth,     I declare what is right.9 The Lord God is right and just. Truth is very important to finding God. The Bible states plainly, “you will know the truth, and the truth will make you free.”10 This shows that truth can only be found through Divine revelation, at least when concerning Divine issues. In the Bible truth is arrived at by knowledge of God. So a human can possess knowledge, without knowing God. However, the opposite is not true. A human cannot know truth without knowledge. Thus, truth and knowledge are the basis of faith. Since knowledge can be a determination of the human will and truth through Divine will, both are an integral to having faith in God. Aquinas wrote: Now the object of the theological virtues is God Himself, Who is the last end of all, as surpassing the knowledge of our reason. On the other hand, the object of the intellectual and moral virtues is something comprehensible to human reason. Wherefore the theological virtues are specifically distinct from the moral and intellectual virtues.11 Knowledge is God, thus God is knowledge. Aquinas theories also believed both human will and Divine will played a part in knowing God. He thought natural revelation, reason, and supernatural revelation, faith, both created a foundation for a relationship with God.12 Natural revelation is truth available to everyone just by being a human being. An example of natural revelation is heat burns. Most rationale individuals understand the if something gets hot enough, it will burn. Supernatural revelation is revealed through prophets. An example of supernatural revelation would be the Bible or Scriptures. Aquinas states: man possess an aptitude to for understanding and loving God; and this aptitude consists in the very nature of the mind, which is common to all men. Secondly, insomuch as man actually or habitually knows and loves God though imperfectly; and this image consists in the conformity of grace. Thirdly, insomuch as man knows and loves God perfectly; and this image consists in the likeness of glory.....The first is found in all men, the second only in the just, the third only in the blessed.13 This shows all men are capable of having the basic knowledge of God, but only truly blessed, or the ones that have Divine revelation, believe and have faith. Maximus concurred with Aquinas in theory. For example, Maximus wrote, “Apart from the Logos, our knowledge of creatures is distorted and imperfect.”14 Logos or Logoi is the principles of creation mirrored in sensory objects in their relationship to the Word and all creation within the Word.15 If this is true, human knowledge is flawed, so human will must also be flawed as well. However, God is perfect with all knowing knowledge, thus Divine will is flawless. Jesus Christs Human and Divine Will Aquinas believed that humans could contemplate Gods existence and attributes, such as One, Knowledge, Power, Good, Truth, through reason, but only certain aspects of God can be known through Divine revelation.16 An instance of Divine revelation would be the revelation of God in Jesus Christ. Major aspects of Christianity, like the Trinity, Holy Spirit, and Bible must be revealed in the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church according to Aquinas. Aquinas believed the God was not beyond proof, but not self evident. He had five immutable principles for God: 1. God is simple, without composition of parts, such as body and soul, or matter and form. 2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God is distinguished from other beings on account of Gods complete actuality. 3. God is infinite. That is, God is not finite in the ways that created beings are physically, intellectually, and emotionally limited. This infinity is to be distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of number. 4. God is immutable, incapable of change on the levels of Gods essence and character. 5. God is one, without diversification within Gods self. The unity of God is such that Gods essence is the same as Gods existence. In Aquinass words, "in itself the proposition God exists is necessarily true, for in it subject and predicate are the same.17 If this is true, then God is one. What about the Trinity? What about the Holy Spirit and Jesus Christ? Aquinas wrote that God, while perfectly united, is also described by three interrelated persons; God the Father, the Holy Spirit, and Jesus Christ.18 The Trinity is the essence of God, all three work together. The Father generates the Son which in turn generates the Holy Spirit.19 The Trinity is the communication of Gods self to humans. Through the Incarnation of the Word in the person of Jesus Christ and through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit within those who have experienced salvation by God the Trinity exists in the world.20 The Scriptures also confirm Aquinas view of the Trinity. Even in the beginning God is referred to as us, not I. The Scriptures state: Then God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.’21 This is one verse in many in the Scriptures about God being plural. Of course, the Scriptures intertwine the three into one supreme God. Aquinas views on God and the Trinity are important in order to give background on his views about Jesus Divine and human will. Jesus Christ is introduced by Aquinas in the retelling of the Adam and Eve story.22 Adam and Eve fell into the original sin by eating the forbidden fruit, thus damning their descent to be born sinners. Original sin is what makes the negativeness or imperfection of man. Since there is an imperfection in man something needs to bridge man and God, making man acceptable in Gods eyes. This bridge is Christs Incarnation. Christs Incarnation restores human nature by eliminating “the contamination of sin”23 allowing God and man to become reunited. Aquinas also wrote, “Divine Wisdom judged it fitting that God should become man, so that thus one and the same person would be able both to restore man and to offer satisfaction.”24 If God became man in Jesus Christ, the Jesus Christ is God and man. Thus Jesus has not only a Divine will, but a human will as well. For example, Aquinas wrote that Jesus was truly Divine, not simply human.25 However, Aquinas also asserted that the fullness of God was an essential part of Christs being, but that Christ had a human or rational soul.26 Jesus Christ had two conflicting wills. His Divine will orchestrated the world, salvation, and other Divine thoughts. Jesus human will had to be controlled, so He could be the perfect sacrifice for salvation. Aquinas suggested that both of these two natures or wills existed in one real human body.27 This concept can be confusing. However, the Trinity is confusing at first, but then once understood, easier to grasp. Maximus, like Aquinas, believed that Jesus had a Divine and human will. The two wills, however can be harmonized, Maximus stated, “God and man are paradigms one of another, that as much as God is humanised to man through love for mankind, so much is man able to be deified to God through love.”28 Love is the perfect way to express Jesus Christs Incarnation to create a bridge between God and man. Jesus clearly had two wills. The Scriptures states before Jesus Crucification, He prayed, “Father, if You are willing, remove this cup from Me; yet not My will, but Yours be done.”29 Since Jesus was praying to God the Father, this was his human will speaking. The Divine will in this case would be God the Fathers will, the human will was Jesus will. This is a perfect example of Jesus human will being controlled by a Divine will. Jesus Divine will dictated salvation through Incarnation, but his human will did not want to be crucified. Not wanting to be crucified is a complete human emotion. If Jesus had human emotions, He must have had human will. Image of God Jesus Christ is the Son of Man. Man was created in Gods image. Aquinas theorizes: The Prophet speaks of bodily images made by man. Therefore he says pointedly: What image will you make for Him? But God made a spiritual image to Himself in man.30 Although man was created in the image of God, when Adam and Eve committed the original sin, man became imperfect. However there is hope, Aquinas states: Everything imperfect is a participation of what is perfect. Therefore even what falls short of the nature of an image, so far as it possess any sort of likeness to God, participates in some degree the nature of the image.31 The fact that God created man in His own image, suggest that Divine will and human will are compatible. The difference is Divine will is perfect, whereas human will is imperfect. However through Jesus Incarnation the two wills can converge. Influences Both Aquinas and Maximus were empiricist. An empiricist is a theory of knowledge, accentuating the role of experience, especially the sensory in the creation of ideas and thoughts, but disallowing innate ideas. Empiricist believe that man is an empty vessel, waiting to be filled with the knowledge of experience. Aquinas had some influences on his writings and beliefs. A few of the influences on Aquinas were: Aristotle-Aristotle was also an empiricist. Aristotle was a Greek philosopher. He was taught by Plato and became a teacher to Alexander the Great. Peter Lombard-A writer of the theological text called The Four Sentences. Augustine of Hippo-A theologian. Rabbi Moses-Maimonides was a Jewish Rabbi theologian. Commentator Averroes Ibn Rushd-A scholar that commented on Aristotles works in Arabic.32 Aquinas influences are important. They helped him come to the conclusion that there was a Divine will and a human will. Aristotles empiricist views must have made Aquinas delve into what exactly the differences and similarities in Divine will and human will were. Rabbi Moses had to teach Aquinas about the theory of one God. From all of these influences, Aquinas came to the conclusion that two wills do exist. Maximus also had influences, which caused him to come to the theory of dual wills. Maximus influences were: Aristotle Plato-Aristotles teacher. Plotinus-A philosopher and teacher of Proclus. Proculs-A philosopher and student of Plotinus. Patriarch Sergius I-Monothelitism advocate. Pyrrhus-Maximus friend. Debated Monothelitism with Maximus, with Pyrrhus admitting Monothelitism is flawed. Later recanted Dyothelite theory.33 The last two had the most impact on Maximus and his concept that Jesus possessed both a Divine and human will. The first believed Maximus was a heretic, whereas the second came around to Maximus way of thinking. When the winds of change blew at the Vatican, Pyrrhus returned to his Monothelitism point of view. Maximus was put on trial and convicted of heresy. However, after Maximus natural death (after they cut out his tongue and cut off his write hand), the Catholic Church made him a saint.34 Maximus came to the conclusion about the dual wills of Jesus Christ after being influenced by these men. Both Aquinas and Maximus believed that there is a Divine and human will. They also agree that Jesus Christ had both a Divine and human will. The Scriptures confirm what both men asserted. Jesus Divine will knew He had to be sacrificed in Jerusalem for his Incarnation. For example, the Scriptures states: From that time on, Jesus began to show his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem and undergo great suffering at the hands of the elders and chief priests and scribes, and be killed, and on the third day be raised.35 and: Then he began to teach them that the Son of Man must undergo great suffering, and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days rise again.36 Jesus understood his purpose. This was his Divine will. Jesus showed another side of his Divine will by not allowing himself to be captured until the time was appointed. The Scriptures explain: But he went out and began to proclaim it freely, and to spread the word, so that Jesus could no longer go into a town openly, but stayed out in the country; and people came to him from every quarter.37 There was a Divine appointed time for Jesus to die. Since Jesus was God, He understood that until that time He must remain safe. Another aspect of his Divine will was his choice to live in poverty, spreading Gods word. The Scripture explains, “Jesus said to him, ‘If you wish to be perfect, go, sell your possessions, and give the money to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; then come, follow me.”38 Human will would want riches on the earth, however Jesus Divine will was perfect in the understanding that heaven is worth more than any amount of gold. The Scriptures also show that Jesus had human emotions. For example: But when Jesus saw this, he was indignant and said to them, ‘Let the little children come to me; do not stop them; for it is to such as these that the kingdom of God belongs.39 The emotion of indignation caused Jesus human will to allow the children to come to him. Jesus human will can be told by his utterances on the cross. The Scriptures state “And about three o’clock Jesus cried with a loud voice, ‘Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?’ that is, ‘My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?’”40 This was Jesus human will, crying out to God. In this case His human will overrode His Divine will. Conclusion Aquinas and Maximus believe that there is two wills; Divine and human. Divine will is perfect, whereas human will is imperfect. Divine will is also superior to human will. Human will can never override Divine will. For example: Human will can diverge from Gods will in a sense, by willing something God doesnt will it to will—sin, for example (though God doesnt will human will not to sin either, since the Lord does whatever he wills, so that were he to will no sin be committed, none would be.41 This means that Christians that do not want to sin anymore, cannot simply will it, because God does not will it. Maximus points out what most know, Jesus was not a mere man or a Divine God, He is both. Maximus believed: We do not confine our definition of Jesus to the human plane, since we do not decree that he is a mere man, severing the union that transcends thought. For we use the name human being of the One who is God by nature and who truly shared our being in an essential way, not simply because he is the cause of mankind. For he is not man only, because he is also God himself.42 Jesus is man and God. There is no way to separate the two. For Jesus to be just God, having only Divine will, then it would not have been possible for him to become man. On the other hand, for Jesus to be just human, then the Incarnation would have never occurred. For salvation to work Jesus must have both Divine and human nature. Divine and human will are effected by several factors. Both Aquinas and Maximus believed that there is dual wills present in this world. Two other theories they both have is the Divine will is perfectly flawless and human will is imperfectly flawed. Divine will and human will is also impacted by knowledge. Truth can only be obtained by Divine will, but human will strives to get closer to truth, thus man seeks God for redemption. The image of God is also important in understanding Divine will and human will, especially when discussing the duality of Jesus will. Since man was formed in the image of God, when the Son of Man came to earth, He came as a man. While upon the earth, Jesus had both Divine will and human will, since He was both man and God. Man and God are intertwined by wills, knowledge, truth, and most importantly by Jesus Christs Incarnation. Human will naturally wants to seek God. However, the chasm between the imperfect human will and Divine will of God is wide. Jesus Incarnation bridges that gap, because Jesus Christ possess both human and Divine wills. Without the presence of both of these wills, the bridge could not be built. This would leave man to fall into original sin without any hope for redemption or salvation. Aquinas and Maximus were both influenced by Aristotle. The knowledge and reason taught by Aristotle allowed both men to understand Divine and human will. Both men through research and experience came to similar conclusions. The most important conclusion was the fact that Christ, being God and man must have dual wills to connect God and man. Jesus Divine will allowed him to sacrifice himself for the Incarnation. By having a human will, He completely atoned for sinners sins. Without Jesus dual wills, mankind would have been damned with no redemption. Bibliography Aquinas, T. (1981). St Thomas Aquinas Summa Theologica. USA: Christian Classics. Aquinas, T. and T. McDermott. (1993). Selected Philosophical Writings. USA: University of Oxford Press. Berthold, G. C. (1997). “Maximus Confessor.” in The Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, ed. Everett Ferguson. New York: Garland Publishing. Blowers, P. M. and R. L. Wilken. (2004). On the Cosmic Mystery of Jesus Christ: Selected Writings from St. Maximus the Confessor. USA: St. Vladimirs Seminary Press. Louth, A. (1996). Maximus the Confessor. UK: Routledge. Nichols, A. (2002). Discovering Aquinas. USA: Eerdmans Publishing Company. Read More