Anglo-Saxon Manhood - Essay Example

When Edmund Hillary along with Tensing reached the world’s highest peak, it was taken as an expression of New Zealand’s Anglo-Saxon manhood. He depicted colonial honesty. His immense muscular strength and modesty was connected with masculinity and along with these the culture of beer and alcohol was added to manhood. Thus alcohol manufacturers used such celebrities to endorse their products. Murad Cigarettes used comedians Fatty Arbuckle and Harry Bulger in its ads (Clark & Horstmann, 2005). Nipper the dog listening to “His Master’s Voice” has become one of the famous but fictional celebrity promoters including the Marlboro Man and the Pillsbury Dough Boy.

Consumers are attracted through advertising and promotions. The first impression that a consumer attains through advertising influences his purchasing decisions. To create a positive impression, companies try to create a distinctive brand image for their products. The strategy is to utilize celebrities as endorsers in marketing campaign and it is growing increasingly popular. Companies usually use talent – movie actors, models, athletes or famous people for endorsement (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). Not just the large firms, even smaller companies with limited budget use sports and athletes to promote their products. Companies all over the world spend millions ever year to acquire celebrities to endorse their product. It hence become important to determine why companies choose celebrities to endorse their products, on what basis they select the celebrities and whether they get the expected returns from such endorsement.

This proposal will briefly discuss the background with definition of ‘celebrities’ and after research justification and outlining the questions, based on the literature available, it will form a framework for research.

2.0 Background

A celebrity is defined as "an individual who is known to the public (i.e., actor, sports figure, entertainer, etc.) for his or her achievements in areas other than that of the product class endorsed" (cf., Friedman and Friedman 1979 cited by Kamins, Brand, Hoeke & Moe, 1989).

The use of celebrities for product endorsement was on the rise in the late 1970s. While it was estimated that 15 percent of prime time television commercials featured celebrities in 1975, by 1978 it was reported to be over 20 percent (Kamins, Brand, Hoeke & Moe, 1989). Kamins et al (1989) conducted a study to determine the impact on advertising effectiveness and credibility based one two-sided versus one-sided celebrity endorsements. Two-sided communication was found to be more effective in generating responses and the study concluded that using a celebrity in a two-sided form is an effective advertising strategy. Clark and Horstmann (2005) have studied celebrity endorsement effectiveness based on different consumer groups for the same product.

According to a report published in Campaign (2007) a survey revealed that only 16 percent of the people would buy products that had celebrity endorsement. Since 2001 the number of television ads featuring celebrities has been steadily increasing as the budgets have tightened and researchers not sure to what extent celebrities make a difference to the sales. The study was conducted on several variables and it also revealed that consumers lose confidence on celebrities who do too many things. Another article in Marketing Week (2006) suggests that when celebrities are used to endorse a product, people quickly forget the product that has been endorsed and the celebrity becomes the focus of attention. ECM (2007) says the market for celebrity may be shrinking according to Euromonitor. The celebrity trend is already weakening in the US and may impact the global fragrance market.

Research by Choi, Lee and Kim (2005) suggests that celebrities have moved beyond the national boundaries and establish awareness and reputation around the world.

Celebrities exert their influence on the consumers through perceived attributes such as expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness, familiarity, and likeability. Hence celebrity endorsement is more attractive when images or the characteristics of the celebrity match the endorsed product.

This suggests that celebrity endorsement had risen in advertising products in the 1970s but in the last few years there has been a decline in the perceived returns. Nevertheless, consumers give more weightage to a product that is endorsed by a celebrity than by another product that is not endorsed. It has also been suggested that the characteristics of the celebrity are important and if they match the attributes of the product the returns are better.  Cross-cultural studies also suggest that celebrities with worldwide recognition in advertising is an effective means of overcoming cultural difficulties but others contend that fundamental values remain divergent across cultures (Choi, Lee & Kim). There is no study that focuses on determining to what extent celebrity endorsement has been successful in enhancing the brand image of a product. Thus the framework for this study will be to determine to what extent celebrity endorsement is important in building brand personality and how these influence consumer decision.

            Based on this, the research would have the following objectives:

1. Why are celebrities used for endorsement of a product?
2. How does it differ from products that are not endorsed by a celebrity?
3. Are the attributes of the celebrity always matched with the attributes of the product?
4. What are the characteristics of the celebrity that are considered important in selecting for endorsement?
5. Do the companies derive return on investment?

3.0 Justification for the research

The attributes of the celebrity widely differ and it has also been observed by some cross-cultural studies that the attributes that may influence in one market may not be successful in another. Besides, current literature suggests that celebrity endorsement has seen a decline in the recent years. These gaps in the literature are expected to be filled by a study of literature from different sources. This study is expected to bring to light the reasons why recently there has been a decline in using celebrities for endorsing a product. The research would then lead us to conclude whether the decline is factual or a presumption. It would ultimately lead us to conclude whether celebrities can influence the purchase decision and whether the company derives economies of scale in using celebrities to endorse their product. 

4.0 Literature review

There is a broad stream of literature available on celebrity endorsement and how this helps in enhancement of the brand of the product. Different studies have been conducted with varying theoretical frameworks. Marketing is concerned not just with the marketing principles but involves the play of psychology in understanding human behavior which helps to determine marketing plans. It is necessary to understand what influences consumer decisions. The economics have to be worked out as well to ensure the returns on investment before expenditure on marketing is sanctioned. Marketing communications play a vital role and the decision to use a celebrity falls under marketing communications. Celebrity endorsement is in itself a topic which involves the attributes that the celebrity should have or the attributes that sell. This section will narrow down the study to understanding the advantages and hazards of celebrity endorsement and based on the principles of consumer psychology use the meaning transfer model to understand the impact of Celebrity Endorsement on consumer's perception and attitude.

4.1 Definitions

Endorsement refers to the backing, support or approval from a third party. Endorsers are seen as dynamic and possessing attractive and likeable characteristics. The endorser’s qualities can be transferred to the organizations’ products. Celebrities are those “who enjoy public recognition and who use this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement” (Canning & West, n.d.) while according to Schlecht (2003) celebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a large share of a certain group of people. “Celebrity endorsement” occurs when “an individual or organization of repute is used to endorse the product, services or activities of the organization” (Canning & West).

4.2 Consumer psychology

Consumer psychology determines how consumers process information and form judgments and how memory and judgment affect consumers' decision making (Tybot & Artz, 1994). Tim Kasser, a professor of psychology, says “to be happy people need to feel safe and secure. They need to feel competent and able to do the things they need to do; they need to feel they are connected to people, loved; and they need to feel free, autonomous" (McCarthy, 2004). Enhancing motivation is a technique that involves the creation of an attractive and interesting message that will create positive effect (Hallahan, 2000). Visuals, unusual photography, topography and layouts serve as stimuli and transmit messages.

When people look for some security persuasion from a trustworthy source plays an important role. An expert celebrity tends to be persuasive and generates a higher willingness to buy that brand. A trustworthy source can generate the strongest opinion change by consumers (Mehulkumar, 2005). Celebrity advertising can have both informational and emotional impacts on its viewers, says Gu (2005). The emotional impact creates the awareness of the product and the emotional impact creates a strong linkage between the viewer and the endorsed product and there by enhances the willingness to buy the product. People claim to be obsessed with the talent or the beauty of the celebrity and this leads them in their purchasing decisions. This implies that consumer psychology has a role to play in the decision-making process. It also affirms that the traits and characteristics of the endorser have great significance in changing consumer opinions. Celebrities become brand ambassadors or carry the brand across to the consumers. The next section deals with how brand enhancement occurs through celebrity endorsement.

4.3 Brand enhancement through celebrity endorsement

A brand is not merely a name, logo or a slogan. It is the customers’ perception of the stimulus when the brand is presented (Berry & Lampo, 2004). A brand personality is a very important feature in developing a strong brand identity. Brand personality has been defined as the outward face of a brand, its characteristics most closely associated with human traits (Upshaw, 1995 cited by Wallenklint, 1998). The perceived personality of the person is associated with nearly everything associated with that person, which includes the neighborhood, friends, activities, clothes and manner of acting. Buyers choose brand products the way they choose friends. They choose brand products they want to be associated with. Hence they look for traits in the endorser that want. This is as Charbonneau and Garland (2005) describe that the consumer perception depends upon the similarity between the source and the receiver. A charismatic personality signifies a strong, deep, long-lasting relationship between the consumer and the brand personality (Milas & Mlačić, 2007). When a celebrity in commercials announces a catchy slogan or highlights unique qualities of a product, it is sure to attract attention. If the personality projects a feeling of trust, consumers look for the same trust in using the product. Thus celebrity endorsers make advertisements more believable, enhance the recognition of a brand name, create a positive attitude towards the brand name and create a distinct personality of the brand (Mustafa, 2005). Such is the association created with brand personality when endorsed by a celebrity.

4.4.1 Risks associated with celebrity endorsement

Using celebrities to endorse a product does not come without any risk, contend Charbonneau & Garland (2005). Apart from the risk of overshadowing the brand, should the endorser be involved in any controversy, negative attitudes to the brand can develop. The risk of overshadowing the product was demonstrated by a study conducted by Mehta (1990) which demonstrated the difference in cognitive responses generated between two different groups (Mehta, 1994). The results showed that the commercials with celebrity endorsement focused more on the star while the other group concentrated more on the product and the brand featured. In the non-celebrity there was no influence in the buying intentions but was an important factor in the celebrity group. 

4.4.2 Multiple celebrity endorsement

Overexposure can also pose a risk when celebrities endorse multiple products (Charbonneau & Garland, 2005; ECM, 2007; Schlecht, 2003). This can diminish consumer perceptions and celebrity credibility and likeability. Multiple endorsements provoke cynicism. The differentiation that a celebrity brings to the brand means little when they promote numerous brands. There is lack of distinctiveness when one famous person endorses several products instead of concentrating on and representing one specific brand (Schlecht, 2003). A scent had to be pulled down from distribution after controversy surrounding Jade Goody’s reality television appearance in Big Brother. Britney Spears’ public breakdown affected her ability to match the glamorous icon that the perfume relies upon (ECM, 2007). At the same time, it has been found that if one product has multiple celebrity endorsements, the results are better as it can appeal to various audiences. Products like Omega watches and L’Oreal match their diverse product lines in accordance with celebrity’s meanings (Schlecht, 2003).

The perception that consumers had of endorsers was different in the 1940s but today consumers understand that endorsements are income generators for the athletes. When Jesse Owens ran in Adidas track shoes in 1936 Berlin Olympics it was to represent advancement in footwear and in 2002 Tiger Woods is reported to have made $70 million US endorsing American Express, Rolex, Nike, Titleist, Target, Buick and Tag Heuer, to name a few. Other risks include that celebrity image is not static and could result in loss of public favor. According to ECM (2007) also “celebrity association can reduce the value of any given product should the glamorous façade of celebrity come tumbling down”. The message that the consumer receives depends upon the celebrity’s credibility. It is also believed that the consumer first ‘consumes’ the images of celebrities and then ‘consumes’ the product.

4.5 The Meaning Transfer Model

To understand the impact of Celebrity Endorsement on consumer's perception and attitude this model would be most effective. The meaning transfer model determines the effectiveness of celebrity endorsement by assessing the meanings consumers associate with the endorser and how it is eventually transferred to the brand (McCracken 1989 cited by Schlecht, 2003). Celebrity endorsement is a process of three stages which constitute cultural meaning transfer from celebrity to consumer to product (Mustafa, 2005). According to this model the meaning acquired by good and celebrities in consumer societies move beyond the simple association of the two and permeate further the consumers’ lives. This helps the consumer to gain a deeper and more complex cluster of significance (Murdoch, n.d.). This model is composed of three stages. In the first stage the meaning associated with the famous person moves from the endorser to the product or the brand. In the second stage an association is formed of the brand with the meanings attributed to the celebrity and finally the consumer acquires the meaning of the brand.

Meaning transfer in the endorsement process (McCracken, 1989 taken from Schlecht, 2003).

Stage 1: Meaning acquisition

McCracken addressed the meaning acquisition from the cultural perspective (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). He argues that celebrities are different from anonymous models. While advertisements can carry out meaning transfer without the assistance of celebrities, celebrities add value, subtlety, depth and power. Nevertheless, anonymous actors also add meaning and are much cheaper to obtain. Then why should companies opt for celebrities? What are the special features that celebrities bring to the product and brand enhancement and how does it influence the consumers?

People do not buy products just for what they do but also for what the product means. McCracken (1988) asserts that the meaning originates in the culturally constituted world, moving into goods via the fashion system, word of mouth, reference groups, subcultural groups, celebrities and the media (Escalas & Bettman, 2005). Reference group usage provides meaning through the associations that consumer hold regarding the group. The cultural meanings move through a conventional path to the individual consumers. Meanings begin as something inherent and resident in the culturally constituted, physical, and social world (McCrakcen, 1986 cited by Mehulkumar, 2005). Meanings move from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods through advertising and fashion systems and it is then transferred to individual consumer through the efforts of the consumer.

If anonymous models or actors provide the endorsement, it may provide distinction status, age and gender but these meanings are vague and indistinct (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). Celebrities offer meanings with special precision and a special life style that anonymous models cannot offer. Celebrities give configuration of meaning that anonymous models can never have power over. Even if celebrities offer meanings that can be found elsewhere, they have more power and exert more influence. The meanings in the character come out with more vividness and clarity. Besides, the models and actors merely “act” out the meanings they deliver to the commercial while the celebrities “possess” their meanings and they have created them. Schlecht (2003) aggress that celebrities own their meanings because they have created them on the public stage by dint of intense and repeated performance. Celebrities are useful in marketing because they provide a “set of characteristics” that supports consumers in evaluating the presented brand.

In the field of entertainment, Mustafa says (2005) the line is becoming blurred between the consumer, celebrity and entertainment. Celebrities come with their own narratives that have been reinforced over a long period of repeated public performance. The famous singer Cher represents the middle class, middle age but youthful segment that are liberated and extrovert. These meanings are transferred to the product she endorses.

Stage 2: Endorsement

The first step for the advertising agency is to identify the set of characteristics that consumers look for, argues McCracken (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). Then one has to start looking for the celebrities that carry these meanings and according to the budget the celebrity is selected. Each celebrity may carry some unwanted meanings as well and it has to be ensured that these are not transferred to the product. To achieve this, the advertisement must be filled with object, context, people and copy that have the same meaning as the celebrity. McCracken further says that the advertisement will sometimes act on the meanings on the celebrity and may even modestly help them change. The advertisement has to be designed in a way that the product and the celebrity work in perfect symbiosis so that consumer is attracted to it.

Consumers’ needs have to be considered and accordingly the advertising company has to select “who will best be able to produce the most favorable response from consumers” (Schlecht, 2003). When the model and the beauty product are paired, it allows for transfer of meanings to the consumer goods. Mustafa (2005) cites McCracken who explains that endorsement makes available individuals charged with detailed and powerful meaning. When endorsement takes place it is essential that the meaning is transferred or the message that the product wants to convey reaches the consumer (Canning & West, n.d). Hence selecting the right celebrity becomes important. The image of the celebrity should be able to communicate the message that the company wishes to communicate and these depend to a large extent on the personality traits of the endorser.

The meaning transfer theory has direct implications for the celebrity endorsement process. McCracken argues that for the purpose of communication, a celebrity has a set of fictional roles and when consumer respond to these, they are in fact responding to a very particular set of meanings (Mehulkumar). The meanings that a celebrity brings are compelling and useful. The meanings associated with a celebrity like sophistication, morals, maturity and family-type of a celebrity would result in different association for different products (Schlecht, 2003). If Andie McDowell were to endorse ‘Shine Délice’ with these characteristics, it would affect the meaning of the brand in the minds of the consumer but to promote L’Oréal’s lip color brand would require a celebrity that was less youthful, more introverted and safe. Celebrities involve a bundle of meanings and there has to be discrimination between celebrities (Mehulkumar). These demonstrate that it is essential to select a celebrity that would be most effective in endorsing a product.

Stage 3: Consumption

 The final step of the transfer process is the most complicated. It is not enough for the consumer to own a product to take possession of its meaning or to incorporate these meanings into the self (McCracken 1989, cited by Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). The consumer has to claim the meaning and then work with them. In this stage the meanings are transferred from the product to the consumer where the properties of the product become the properties of the consumer (McCracken 1989 cited by Mehulkumar).

The consumers are constantly looking for objects that give them useful meanings and the celebrities play an important role in this. They have done so in public out of bits and pieces of each role in their career. Consumers have watched them select and combined the meanings contained in these objects, people and events around them (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). To the consumer the celebrity is an exemplary and inspirational figure. The consumer does not admire the celebrity just because the celebrity has done what the consumer wants to do, but also due to the fact that the celebrity provides useful meaning to the consumer. When celebrities enter the endorsement process, they make these meanings available in material form to the consumer. Consumers then build on these meanings.

 The celebrity becomes more powerful when he or she is an innovator of a new self that the consumer uses (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). The celebrities are perfect figures or super consumers because they are seen to have created clear, coherent, and powerful selves that everyone seek.  The celebrities are ideal, idealistic and sublimated models of perfection (Murdoch). They serve to illustrate the process so vividly through which the meanings can be accumulated. Thus through the three stage process, the celebrities become key players in meaning transfer process and score over the anonymous model that endorse the product.

4.6 Economic worth

 Celebrity endorsement contracts on firm’s profitability justify the large costs they incur. The impact on stock returns is positive and hence viewed as a worthwhile investment (Bergeström & Skärfstad, 2004). These endorsements act as a vehicle to dramatic communication. They amplify the product signals aimed at consumers and thus increase the chances of creating the sales momentum through positive consumer evaluation of the product.

Companies spend huge sums on celebrities because they think celebrities have stopping power. They are able to draw attention to advertising messages in a very cluttered media environment. They have been found to favorably influence consumers’ attitudes, feelings and purchase behavior (Murdoch). Companies further belie that celebrities can enhance the target audience’s perceptions of the product in terms of image and performance. Van der Waldt, Schleritzko, & Van Zyl (2007) contend that using celebrities regularly ensures a return on investment for the amount of money spent on employing the celebrity. Through repetition the connection between the associations of the product and the celebrity is strengthened. This makes it essential to choose the right celebrity to endorse a particular product.

4.7 Changing trends

While celebrities have been found to generate attention, recall and positive attitudes, consumers are becoming cynical towards these endorsements contend Charbonneau and Garland (2005). However, in the cosmetics and toiletries industry things are different. An article published in the ECM (2007) believes that celebrity’s endorsement can bring awareness that is priceless to a cosmetic or a fragrance brand and is capable of generating new consumers even in a saturated market. Today the consumers par “attention to every detail of a star’s life, from their favorite mascara to their attitude”. Today deriving such information has become an obsession in the society. The younger consumers are more conscious of celebrities and they are “keeping the industry vibrant and allowing room to experiment in”. If the choice of celebrity is wrong the endorsement is ineffective. The magic in marketing lies in choosing a celebrity that resonates with the consumer. Celebrity endorsement works when a celebrity fully complements the brand. The young consumers like products that are fashionable and trendy among people who resemble them, rather than approved by celebrities. Another survey by University of Bath revealed that celebrity comes at the bottom of the list in influencing purchasing behavior. Consumer also does not want to admit that they have been influenced by celebrities’ endorsement. The trend is moving away from celebrities and is in putting the consumer back into the brand and getting them involved.

 Celebrities have become popular because of the power that modern media holds over the consumers. Half-truths, rumors, gossips about celebrities are transferred and disseminated at the speed of light there is immense pressure on the media to bring into focus any celebrity that the international audience wants (Murdoch). This has increase the importance of celebrities in the marketing communication process.

5.0 Tie in all concepts and revisit issue

Marketing communications play a very vital role in developing brands. Celebrities’ endorsements are an important marketing communication mans which has been widely accepted. Through the literature review it has been possible to gather an understanding of the words 'celebrities', 'endorsement' and then relate them to marketing communications. The connotation 'celebrity' denotes that when a person of repute endorses a product, its value increases and the consumers are attracted.

The perception that consumers had of endorsers in earlier days was much different from what it stands today. Today it is commercialized and the endorsers are here for money. Earlier, they were used to represent advancement in the product. Nevertheless, its popularity grew indicating that celebrity endorsement enhances the brand image of a product.

People look for persuasion from a trustworthy source and people want to feel secure and comfortable when they choose a product. When this is endorsed by someone acclaimed worldwide or at least in their own region, they value the product. Celebrities act as brand ambassadors in transmitting the message to the consumers as the company wants. Thus celebrities have an important role to play in enhancement of the brand. It has also been established that products that are not endorsed by celebrities or endorsed by anonymous models or actors do not perform as well, or do not attract as much consumer as do products that have been endorsed by celebrities. The traits that such a celebrity projects becomes of value to the consumer who looks for the same traits in the product. Now even though the celebrity is important to enhance the brand image, there are certain perceived risks or hazards in using celebrity endorsement.

The fist risk that arises in using celebrities to endorse a product can be overshadowing the product. The second risk arises when the endorser is involved in any controversy or negative publicity. Thirdly, overexposure can also pose a risk when celebrities endorse multiple products. This can diminish consumer perceptions and celebrity credibility and likeability.

To identify and derive the answers to the research questions, McCracken's meaning transfer model was used. This helped to understand the three stages through which the meaning of the message of a advertisement or a brand is transferred to the consumer by way of using celebrity endorsement. In the first stage it has been established that celebrities offer meanings with special precision and a special life style that anonymous models cannot offer. This is because the actors "act" the meanings they deliver while the celebrities "possess" the qualities or the meanings they transmit.

In the second or the endorsement stage a decision has to be taken on selecting the endorser. Consumers’ needs have to be considered and accordingly the advertising company has to decide on the endorser. Different products would require endorsement with different set of characteristic. In the final stage the consumer has to actually derive the meaning from the messages and work with them. The celebrities are also considered super consumers as they are seen to have clear, coherent and powerful selves that everyone seeks. Thus the celebrities become important in transferring the right meaning to the consumer.

All the researchers and authors agree that celebrity endorsement is much more expensive than non-endorsement of a product or even taking on an anonymous model or actor but the investment is worth the returns. The profitability justifies the high costs incurred in celebrity endorsements as celebrities are able to draw attention to advertising messages.

Even though there was a decline in the last decade in using celebrities as compared to the 1980s, the past few years has witnessed a growing interest from the young consumers in choosing the products endorsed by a celebrity. Today consumers pay every detail to a stars' life and they would certainly opt for the brand that their star uses. This enhances the choice of celebrity which should be able to resonate with the consumer. Hence it is evident that the consumer perception and attitude is definitely enhanced when it is endorsed by a celebrity.

6.0 Conclusion

Celebrity endorsement is an issue which has received much attention and worldwide companies are using celebrities to promote their products. After initially studying the background of the subject the research questions were framed and the research conducted through peer-reviewed journal articles. Literature has been drawn from various journals and a few web articles. Research has also been done on the perception on the subject in the 1970s and 1980s. This gives a clear idea as how the perceptions have changed over time. Even though there was a decline a decade ago, of late again the young consumers are looking for celebrity endorsements. The definitions of 'celebrities' and 'endorsement' were understood and a framework for research established. The meaning transfer model of McCracken was adopted to study the consumer perception of celebrity endorsement. Literature on consumer psychology was also visited which suggested that consumers do look for persuasion and support in choosing a product. The research suggests that celebrities do convey meaning to the consumer and hence it is important that the selection of the celebrity be right so that they are able to convey the right message to the consumer. All of the questions that were posed in the objectives have been attended to. Research has established that celebrities can fetch consumer responses and willingness to buy which anonymous endorsement or non-endorsement cannot fetch. The attributes of the celebrity has to match the message that is expected to be conveyed and the traits that are necessary have been determined. It pays to invest in celebrity endorsement as companies are able to derive the return on investment.