Community Development: Changing Perspectives and Ideologies - Essay Example

Community Development – Changing Perspectives and Ideologies Introduction Community development (CD) and social work, from times long past, have been considered as synonymous terms, complementary to each other. Social work, with its various lines of programs and their proper management, collection of funds and their proper usage, as a whole, was always inclusive of various community based actions that helped to alleviate various social problems like poverty, child abuse, drug abuse and other problems similar in nature. The term community development (CD) signifies “a generic term used to describe the processes by which local communities can raise their own standards of living. These processes include the organization or establishment of services, e.g. for social welfare, health protection, education, improvement of agriculture, development of small scale industries” (cited in UNESCO Working Paper for ACC Working Group on Community Development, 1956, 1). The word social work is made up two words, ‘social’ and ‘work’, and has different meanings when observed from the social perspective of different regions in the world. Thus, social work in India would be different from the social work being carried out in Iraq or Afghanistan, which would again differ in America, or UK, or Australia. Social work concept changes from country to country, varying according to the social and cultural environment, and political culture in the country, where one is conducting the social work. Broadly, social work, which is based on the principles of justice for all and human rights, aims to bring about social changes, develop good human relationships, and to empower people for their own well being and liberation. Community Development, however, does not stop at just being a part of social work. There are many more implications to the word, and it is extremely broad in its scope. While CD does imply social work, today in the modern era of globalization, it also broadly implies the activities of the various political leaders, various civic activists, and the actions of other responsible and aware citizens, who all get involved in the various works done for the betterment of lives in local communities. So it is much more than just social service. CD means empowering the citizens as individuals, or in groups, so that they can learn the skills (often required to create political power to bring about social consciousness on some common agenda) which can be implemented to bring about positive changes. Thus, one may redefine CD as “Community development is a set of values embodied in an occupation.  It often plays a special role in overcoming poverty and disadvantage, knitting society together at the grass roots and deepening democracy. Its purpose is to help groups and networks of people take joint action on matters that concern them for the public good, and enable individuals to influence the decisions that affect their lives” (Community Development Foundation, 18th May 2009). Body History of the changing perspectives of Community Development: CD has been seen throughout history, when men, collectively tried to achieve something better in life, not for himself, but for the entire good of the community. The ancient practices of CD combined the organization of community life that was mainly locally oriented, and the systemic development of the economy of that local community. Here the CD mainly depended on the sociological pattern of the village community, programs for adult education and extension movement. Right from its very conception, CD was not only a process for the social betterment but also “economic, agricultural, industrial, and social development and other efforts directed at changing social conditions” (Sanders, 1958, 4-5). One of the earliest well known social reformers who thought on the lines of CD was, Robert Owen (1771-1851) who wanted to create the ideal community (utopia) via the process of community planning. CD as a process became popular during the 1920’s and 30s especially in eastern Africa, where it was seen as a means to make lives of the local people a little better. It was from these African CD programs that Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, the famous Indian nationalist leader and philanthropist, based his ideas to create grass root level reforms and economic freedom, starting right from the village communities, which however were stalled after his assassination and the following political apathy. In America during the 60’s, CD took a new meaning and referred to “asset building that improves the quality of life among residents of low to moderate income communities” (Ferguson and Dickens, 1999, 5). Housing projects and other business and management projects were developed under the Ford Foundation and the interests of various government officials like Senator Robert Kennedy. These were known as community development corporations, and were operated mainly by the government and UN, which often worked with various affiliated non-profit organizations, to create a better life for socially and economically weaker sections of the society. However during the 80’s and 90’s the wave of globalisation spread worldwide, and the countries were forced their restructure themselves suitable to the modern day needs. During this time the role of the government in such CD programs became increasingly less, and many NGOs and other voluntary organizations came into being. Certain ideological changes also had to be brought about in the very concept of CD, in the face of global restructuring that was going on, which “resulted in new tensions at the community and group levels: these tensions, in turn, have influenced the practice and theory of community development. CD is, of course, also defined by the cultural, social, political, and economic realities of the particular countries and communities where it is carries out” (Campfens, 1997, 3). CD only as charitable and welfare processes, lost its meaning, and it became more developmental in its strategy, with CD having a changed lookout, suitable for each country and its citizens. Campfens here further elaborates, and give some examples in the differences of CD under different scenarios. As for example CD in Bangladesh, an extremely poor Islamic country, will have to deal with the rising population, abject poverty and depleting ecological sources. Israel will have community development that will be oriented towards rehabilitation and integration of Jewish immigrants from other countries coming from different socio-cultural setups. CD programs in Netherlands would be different, as the citizens of this advanced welfare state are used to a lifestyle that is an individualistic and consumer oriented. So from the examples that Campfens gives us, we can understand the multi-dimensional nature of Community Development and the need to explore the trends and theories that explain this complex term. The various competing perspectives that define CD under diverse conditions, from simply being a part of a social work, to being a democratic political procedure, to defining an ongoing process to manage rising dissent, exploring all these angles will help us to understand the nature and process of CD and also discern the implications for its applications. Theories of CD: Sanders (1958) gives four perspectives to describe and view CD. One can view it as a process, or a method, a program or a movement. 1. CD when seen as a process: From this perspective, CD develops in stages, from one level to the next, in a very scientific and definitive procedure, pertaining to social relationships. Here the process starts with one or two members of the ruling class making decisions for the entire state, without any participation from the local community members, in the entire procedure of decision making. From this state the process moves onto a level where the entire community starts taking decisions. So here we find that a process moves from a level of minimum participation to the level of maximum co-operation. Thus starting from the condition where all resources are external, the process moves on to where all local resources are used to optimum. Here CD thus sees a transformation from an authoritarian state to a democratic process. Mezirow describes this change as “a planned and organized effort to assist individuals to acquire attitudes, skills, and concepts required for their democratic participation in the effective solution of as wide as possible a range of community problems in an order of priority determined by their increasing levels of competence” (Mezirow, 1960, 137-38). Thus, from the perspective of viewing CD as a process, we find that it helps to achieve end results democratically and the individual, from being a non-entity plays the role of a decision maker. Here the leader of the state instead of promoting some pre-conceived programs for social improvement focuses more on the process of learning experiences, where the methods used for the problem solving become more important than the solution itself. Thus, here we find that, to promote national progress, the citizens and the government work hand in hand and converge, to work for the betterment of economic, social and cultural conditions of the entire community. As Sehnert would tell us about his views on CD, “a process for changing communities toward desired goals. Included in this process are study, training, education, planning, organizing, and action that brings about the cognitive purposeful change toward the community goals” (Sehnert, 1961). 2. CD when seen as a method: This is a continuation of the process described above, and it consists of a set of procedures marked to achieve some fixed goals. Here the process is guided towards some definite results, which may prove to helpful or detrimental to the community in question. So here we find the target or goal is of primary importance. To achieve this goal some ancillary methods may also be used by the concerned organization, like prize differentiation and formal education. This ‘method’ of making use of the ‘process’ to achieve certain fixed and concrete goals, is mainly employed by the government in central planning and also while making plans for economic development of the country. It may also be actualized by a single person representing a professional field, who views CD as a method which can be used to achieve the goals he has targeted. Some scholars in fact say that this ‘method’ of functioning has led to many major problem solutions, and they suggest that CD as a method should be adopted by the government and formed into a particular and separate department for problem solving and community organization. However on the flip side, this method may also be used as an approach to manipulate and control rising dissent by the government agencies. Thus, here we find that CD instead of becoming a process and method for democracy can become a means to cleverly manipulate and control people. So when using CD as a method, one has to be careful and limit its use as a “method of teaching adults the use of timing and the sequence of activities in bringing a project through successive stages to an acceptable closure” (McCluskey, 1960, 416-20). 3. CD when seen as a program: Here content and material is added to the list of procedures in the ‘method’ described above. This content matter generally is made up of a series of activities to be followed to complete the method. It is assumed that when one sticks to the procedures listed, the method gets accomplished by itself, and the goal is achieved. In the programs drawn by the government for CD, like 5 year plans or 10 year plans, the whole process is very formal. This makes the resultant CD program lose its focus. Instead of focusing on the people who all form the part of CD, the entire process becomes ‘program’ oriented. CD as a program is mainly applied when the government or an organization is working on something that is measurable or quantifiable, and thus can be made into a report. Long term plans chalked out by the government related to specific subjects like health, agriculture, industry and other similar programs, tend to be relegated into using CD as a program. This perspective of CD, as per some scholars like Arthur Dunham, helps in the convergence of community and gives them a sort of self direction, thus working for the benefit of the community as a whole. Here the effort that goes into starting a CD as a program generally follows four identifiable elements. These are a) well planned and well chalked out programs b) promotion of self help programs c) bringing together of many special features or characteristics, for the benefit of the community d) the support through technical assistance in the form of men, or equipments. However this perspective of CD has not found favor with many analysts, as they feel these are too large and heavy duty programs, being undertaken in the name of CD. As Kelly tells us, “the really critical point is that of contact with the community, and here success generally rests largely on the performance of the village –level worker, who as a rule, has scant preparation for such heavy responsibility”(Kelly, 1962-63, 241). So the entire scenario unfolds in this manner, where a democratic government using CD as a program, puts undue pressure on the villager workers to perform within a certain time bound period. The work being of a high pressure and demanding heavy responsibility, the village level workers who may not be competent enough for such programs, may try to achieve the expected results with processes that may not be so democratic after all. However, United Nations in its definition on CD stresses on using it as a ‘program’. It says that CD “ designates the utilization under one single programme of approaches and techniques which rely upon local communities as units of action and which attempt to combine outside assistance with organized local self-determination and effort, and which correspondingly seek to stimulate local initiative and leadership as the primary instrument of change…in agricultural countries in the economically underdeveloped areas, major emphasis is placed upon those activities which aim at promoting the improvement of the basic living conditions of the community, including the satisfaction of some its non-material needs” (United Nations, 1953, 291). 4. CD from the perspective of becoming a movement: Here the CD becomes a mission or a crusade, and does not stay in the neutral zone as we see in a ‘process’, ‘method’ or ‘program’. People who see CD in the perspective of a movement have a very strong cause, to which they are strongly committed and emotionally attached. Thus moving away from scientific methods, we now find that development or progress here is more philosophical, which changes according to different political and social values. Here CD becomes more like an institution by itself where there are set procedures to be followed under the guidance of professionals and specialists in those lines. Here CD is translated and presented in a manner that suits the believer, and the entire set up is led by a few charismatic leaders who can spread the ideologies. In the book “1984” by George Orwell we can see an extreme example of CD being made into a movement by the ruling government, and here we can see the dark side of this perspective when in wrong hands. In the name of CD it can become a measure to completely brain wash civilians and force them to believe in certain ideals. So, while working on CD with this perspective, one must be very careful to organize the whole thing in such a manner that it becomes a source of stimulation and inspiration, and not a method to dominate and rule. Conclusion Thus we find CD is a multidimensional theme, with many perspectives. It may be used beneficially for uplifting a community- socially, politically and morally. It may also be used craftily, to disseminate any dissent or opposition. CD may also be used to dominate and have authoritarian dictatorship in state. While planning for CD and organizing its layout, one will have to be careful to see that it is inclusive, and works for the convergence of all local community members. Agents of CD must be professionals with clearly defined roles, and must be careful to have good public relations, as ultimately, it is for the benefit of this very public that the CD programs aim to serve. References Campfens, H, 1997. Community development around the world: practice, theory, research, Training. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Community Development Foundation, 18th May 2009. About Community Development. Retrieved from http://www.cdf.org.uk/web/guest/about-community-development Ferguson, R and Dickens, W, 1999. Urban problems and community development. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press. Kelly, I, 1962-63. Suggestions for the Training of Village-Level Workers, Human Organization, 21, No. 4, 241. McCluskey, H, 1960. ‘Community development’, in Handbook of Adult Education in The United States, Malcolm S, Knowles, ed. Chicago: association of the USA. 416-20. Mezirow, J, D, 1960. “Community Development as an Educational Process”, International Review of Community Development, No. 5, 137-38. Sanders, I, March 1958. ‘Theories of community development’, Rural Sociology, 23, 1-12. New York: the Ronald press. Sehnert, F, 1961. “A Functional Framework for the Action Process in Community Development”. Carbondale: Department of Community Development, Southern Illinois University. Mimeographed. UNESCO Working Paper for ACC Working Group on Community Development, 1956. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Paris. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0017/001797/179726eb.pdf. United Nations, International Labor Organization, 1953. Committee on International Organization, Program of Concerted Practical Action in the Social Field of the United Nations and Specialized Agencies. Document E/ CN/ 5/291. Read More