Volunteering: Serving to the Society - Literature review Example

2. Introduction Literature review is a quick and easy method to collect information on any (Obenzinger, 2005). It provides meaningful context of the project and helps distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done. It is a sophisticated form of research that helps to understand the context in which the study was conducted (Toracco, 2005). Changes can occur over a period of time which cannot be revealed in a single study but it becomes easy to identify such trends through literature review of previous studies. Literature review also helps to identify the strengths and key contributions of literature. Literature review for this study has been conducted in the traditional manner by first reviewing literature on volunteering in general and then moving on to the specific subject of volunteering in sports. The barriers and motivation to volunteering both in general and in the sport sector have been evaluated. Data on the economy value of volunteering both in the general and the sports sectors have been reviewed and the dynamics of volunteering evaluated. 2.1 Volunteering This section reviews literature on the concept of volunteering in the general sector. The year 2011 was declared the “European Year of Volunteering” aimed at recognizing the contribution that volunteers make to society (Cattan, Hogg & Hardill, 2011). This demonstrates the value of volunteering in a society and particularly in Europe. The voluntary sector comprises of all activities and services extended on the basis of volunteering – unpaid work in a formal business environment (Gallarza, Arteaga, Floristán & Gil, 2009). Volunteering services has its roots in a positive attitude that gives rise to the feeling that serving the society or helping people can lead to a higher degree of life satisfaction. However, the definitions of volunteering and volunteerism range from being altruistic to engaging in unpaid activity. Volunteering has been defined as working for no gain (Waikayi et al, 2012), and as an activity that is freely chosen, does not involve remuneration and helps and benefits people beyond their immediate family (Cattan, Hogg & Hardill, 2011; Hoeber, 2010). Definitions from the Australian Bureau of Statistics and Canada Survey of Giving, Volunteering and Participating, Statistics Canada, highlight several key dimensions of volunteering – free choice, formal structure and lack of payment (Hoeber, 2010). The nature of volunteering action can range from volunteering out of free will, being coerced to volunteer or being obligated to volunteer. However, the very notion of volunteering is that it is a free will action. Nevertheless, Waikayi et al find that it is more of a duty than pleasure with an emphasis on volunteer commitment. Overall it is an activity where assistance is provided without desire for gain, and this could be in the form of time, skills and service to an organization or a group. Volunteering experience is spontaneous community participation within the context of “positive attitude” and “life satisfaction” through the concept and types of value (Gallarza, Arteaga, Floristán & Gil, 2009). However, volunteering could differ across age and gender as discussed in the next section. 2.2 Volunteer Demographic Volunteering is usually undertaken by different segments. As defined by the National Survey of Volunteering, volunteering can be done formally either through a group or an association or informally unpaid help can be given to an individual or a neighbor who is not a relative (Nichols et al, 2004). In 2008-09 41% of the adults volunteered formally while 62% volunteered informally (Volunteering England, 2012). However, the number of hours spent volunteering per volunteer has declined by 30% between 1997 and 2007. The trend towards episodic volunteering is increasing. Episodic volunteering refers to short-term volunteering opportunities or one-off activities (3s4, 2011). On a non-committal basis micro-volunteering is also emerging which is for a very short-term. There were more women volunteers (42%) than male (38%) in 2008-09. The minor ethnic group comprised of 34% of the volunteers against 42% of white adults. The younger volunteers engaged in informal volunteering than formal volunteering (Volunteering England, 2012). Thirty five to forty nine year olds were most likely to formally volunteer and the percentage stood at 47 in 2008-09. Rates of formal volunteering vary based on the socio-economic classification. Managers and professionals are likely to engage in formal volunteering although the small entrepreneurs, the unemployed and the students also engage in volunteering. The most popular sector where formal volunteering is offered is the sports sector (53%) followed by hobbies and recreation (42%), religion (36%), children’s activities outside school (32%), disability and social welfare (25%) and the environment and animals (20%). These figures are based on the DCLG Citizenship Survey 2008-09. The activities that volunteers engage in, is also wide. They carry out activities ranging from conducting events, raising or handling money, being a member of the committee, providing transport, counseling, mentoring or doing clerical work. Cattan, Hogg and Hardill (2011) highlight how volunteering helps improve the quality of life among the older people. The authors find a positive association between older people’s well-being, overall health and quality of life, and their engagement in volunteering. Feeling appreciated, gaining a sense of control, having a sense of purpose and being able to give back to the society are some of the important factors that contribute to their quality of life. Ralston, Downward and Lumsdon (2004) add that men may be asked to volunteer as a response to their own needs or for social benefits associated with volunteering. Women on the other hand may offer help as they perceive the need for their family and friends. Again the motivation differs across age. The authors cite availability of time in the hands of the elderly as the motive, while the youth seeking development opportunities. This implies that several barriers to volunteering exists in different segments. 2.3 Barriers to Volunteering Despite volunteering having numerous benefits, barriers persist. For instance, many (82%) do not find enough time to engage in volunteering, while 49% reported that they are put off by bureaucracy (Volunteering England, 2012). Some 47% are worried about the risks and liabilities involved while 39% do not know how to get involved. Another 39% feel they do not have the right skills and experience necessary for volunteering. Ralston, Downward and Lumsdon (2004) also elaborate that people may have the inclination but lack time or feel apprehensive as they feel they lack the necessary skills and experience. Burn-out among volunteers is also resulting in diminished volunteer involvement. Volunteering requires immense time and energy commitment, tension between volunteers, open scrutiny, absence of tangible rewards and lack of effective leadership create a work-environment that makes volunteering less attractive and is possibly responsible for diminished volunteering. Ellis (2012) highlights barriers to volunteering that could be triggered by the organization when they actually want to attract volunteers. For instance, the choice of words for the skills required, the jargon used in brochures and other publicity material could work as deterrent to those actually keen to offer their services. This is because choice of words communicates much more than literal meaning and hence use of words such as ‘erudite’ could deter people that lack reading and writing skills that may not be actually necessary for volunteering. Organizations also tend to distribute materials in another language implying that volunteers that speak only that language are required. However, the organization is not equipped to interview such candidates. What the organization actually wants to communicate is that candidates that speak English as well as the other language are required. This should be clearly spelt out which could help avoid confusion. At times the target audience may not like the term ‘volunteer’ and hence this could be addressed as ‘community service’, ‘helping out’ or ‘making a difference’. Lack of in-house preparation by the organization can result in demotivating the first time volunteers when the secretaries and receptionist sound disinterested or in a hurry when responding to the potential volunteers. All these suggest that the process of recruitment should be sound so that the right skills are attracted. At the same time, the publicity materials contain messages that serve to motivate the prospects. 2.4 Volunteer Motivations Volunteering impacts the career progression of people aged 16-25 and this can be a motivation to volunteer for events. However, volunteering has to be linked directly to their field of work (Volunteering England, 2012). Volunteers receive advice and support from the organization they volunteer with. Volunteers derive a sense of satisfaction when they see the results. They also derive sense of personal achievement, they make new friends and they get a platform to do work they are good at. Handy et al (2009) adopted the utilitarian view of volunteering. They examined extensive literature on motivation to volunteering (MTV) and concluded that individuals volunteer for several reasons. Motivations could be either value-based or altruistic in nature, or they could be utilitarian motives (Handy et al, 2009). Altruistic motivations include helping others, religious beliefs and supporting a cause. Utilitarian motives include gaining experience, enhancing skills, exploring career paths or making useful contact for paid employment. Other motivations are classified as social motives which include the desire to expand one’s social network or they might just be responding to social pressures to volunteer. Students have other motivations as volunteering helps in securing admission into institutions of higher learning. In an environment characterized by competition volunteering plays the role of a signaling device in the labor market. It informs the employer of the qualities and talents of the candidate. However, people could volunteer because of a set of motives and not based on one single motive. Resume building MTV influences the initial decision to volunteer but over time the students learn of other benefits of volunteering. To tide over the recession, people engage in volunteering as it helps them to utilize their time productively while also enhancing their skills (3s4, 2011). However, the most successful volunteers have a combination of altruistic motives and self-interest (Nordlund, 2009). Through a study of the British Red Cross Waikayi et al (2012) found that people volunteer for a variety of reasons such as social interaction, to conduct work valued in the community and for self-satisfaction. Volunteer motivation can thus be categorized into two groups – those that lead to intrinsic reward in helping others and the motives that provide extrinsic reward from group activity and being a part of the volunteer work environment (Waikayi et al, 2012). Those that volunteer have more job-related satisfaction than the non-volunteers. Different models of volunteering present a challenge to the organizers as they need to manage a diverse workforce. Thus, Ralston, Downward and Lumsdon (2004) highlight seven models of volunteering which should be recognized by the organizers - philanthropic and social giving, community activist, mutual aid and self-help, protesting, campaigning, government programs and the personal development model. Thus the motivation could be altruistic, social-affiliative or instrumental. Despite the barrier to volunteering, the economic value of volunteering is encouraging and should serve as a motivator to organizations to further support volunteering. 2.5 Economics (Value) of Volunteering Measuring the economic value of volunteering has become a core issue as volunteering plays a major role to improve the economic well-being of the citizens by developing and promoting policies leading to sustainable economic growth. In the UK the economic value of volunteering is estimated to be 7.9% of the GDP, with 38% of the total population being engaged on voluntary activity (CEV, 2009). The employer supported volunteering or the SMEs, make a social contribution of up to £3 billion per annum in the UK community. According to the statistics from the Institute for Volunteering Research, for every £1 spent by the organization in supporting volunteering, the volunteers give back up to £14. Volunteering England (2012) has devised a method to measure the value of volunteering – number of volunteers x average number of hours x average hourly wage. The Office for National Statistics determined that the gross average hourly wage for full-time employees in England in 2008 was £13.90, as stated by Volunteering England. Sometime the local pay rates are used to determine the economic value of volunteering as the local rates of pay differ across locations in England. Apart from this measure, Volunteering England (2012) suggests another accurate measure known as VIVA (Volunteer Investment and Value Audit). It evaluated the type of work done by the volunteers, the going rate for that week, and the cost of involving volunteers, such as the management time. The ratio thus generated demonstrates how much value is generated from each pound invested in volunteering. A study using this method conducted in 12 UK small welfare organizations demonstrated a return of between £2 and £8 for each pound invested. In the larger organizations the return varies from £1.3 to £13 with most organizations falling between £3 and £8. Volunteering has more than economic value as it is used as a route to employment (ESRC, 2009). Volunteering contributes to employability as employers prefer candidates with prior experience in volunteering (CEV, 2009). Even agents are offering volunteering placement service which implies that there income too has augmented through this. The Office of the Third Sector now funds a National Talent Bank which provides volunteering assignments to those affected by recession. 2.6 Major Sports Events One of the major social-affiliation motivator is the involvement in sports. Rugby Football Union receives grant to support social inclusion initiatives (Nichols et al, 2004). While the focus in the UK is on the 2012 Olympic Games there are several lead-in events that will take place in several cities and towns across the UK. Several mega events are already in place such as 2014 Commonwealth Games, 2014 Ryder Cup, and the 2015 Rugby Union World Cup (UK Sport, 2012). Work on these events has commenced in association with the NGBs. The lead-in events itself will provide pre-games experience to over 13,000 officials and volunteers. The importance and significance of sports has served to attract volunteers. England has several major sport events and the number of volunteers also has been phenomenal. The table below offers a list of the major sports events in 2002 along with the number of volunteers and the total number of hours spent by the volunteers (Taylor et al, 2003). Table 2.1 Volunteering at major sports events in 2002 Source: Taylor et al. (2003). 2.6 Volunteers at Major Sports Events Taylor et al (2003) define sport volunteering as individual volunteers helping others in sport and receiving either no remuneration or only expenses. Sports events are a unique entity as they provide intense experience or volunteers even though the duration may be just 15-20 hours (Pauline & Pauline, 2009). Sports volunteering provide a brief opportunity to immerse deeply in the subculture of the sport industry. The volunteers feel a part of the sport or the event and hence they feel motivated to commit their time to the sport event. They also develop a sense of camaraderie as they interact with fellow volunteers. The authors contend that such a feeling results in higher degree of retention among volunteers. Sport volunteering is episodic in nature and involves less time commitment than traditional volunteering. Based on the national Population Survey results about 14.8% of adults volunteered for sports in England in 2001 (Taylor et al, 2003). The characteristics of sports volunteers in 2002 against volunteers in 1991 and 1997 have been consistent as shown in the table below. Table 2.2 demonstrates that age distribution, gender breakdown and average amount of hours spent in sports volunteering has been fairly consistent over the three surveys. Majority of volunteering in England is formal and the sport membership clubs account for one-third of sport volunteers. Women are more likely to volunteer for school while men are more likely to volunteer for sports clubs. Table 2.2 Comparison of characteristics of Sports Volunteers in 2002 national population survey with National Survey of Volunteering Surveys 1991 & 1997 Source: Taylor et al. (2003). In the field of sports, different types of organization and groups benefit from sport volunteering. Table 2.3 demonstrates that majority of volunteering is formal while informal volunteering is a significant minority in sport volunteering. Informal volunteering in sports pertains to helping someone in sport not through an organization. Sport volunteers are generally multi-taskers and fulfill a variety of roles. Table 2.3 Organizations benefiting from volunteer contributions Source: Taylor et al, (2003) Even though episodic in nature, Hoeber (2010) contends that volunteers comprise of a major resource in sports organizations to the extent that it is now recognized that sport and recreation cannot exist without the services of volunteers. Volunteers offer their service in a variety of roles including serving as board members, as officials and coaches. They also engage in fund raising activities or work as score keepers. In the field of sports, volunteers expect to be recruited and assigned definite roles, specific positions and given a set schedule, apart from being given training. They subsequently expect to be supervised and evaluated which implies that volunteer management should be professionalized and have a formal approach. Many individuals do receive some form of payment for their services rendered. At a golf tournament the first time and veteran volunteers were offered a free round of golf in exchange for their assistance. Others like the board members, the coaches and managers have their expenses reimbursed or are provided with an honorarium. Volunteer activity in sport has been recognized as an important provider of leisure activities. It also provides opportunities to participate in the sport and the volunteer themselves express their interests. Sports clubs run by the volunteers provide an opportunity to develop a formal structure of the organization or association. Through the club and the National Governing Body (NGB) structure set up by the volunteers the government is able to pursue policies to promote active citizenship, develop sports for young people, contribute to social inclusion and promote sports participation for health benefits (Nichols et al, 2004). While volunteering helps the government in many ways it also provides the youth opportunities for continued participation after they leave secondary, higher or further education. For the Athens Olympic Games about 70% of the volunteers had applied for the first time. Approximately 21 percent of the young people between the ages of 15-17 years declared that they had “great interest” in volunteering while 12.1 percent of the 18-24 year-olds gave similar reasons (Karkatsoulis, Michalopoulos & Moustakatou, 2005). Amongst the older age groups the percentage of those “very interested” varied from 5 percent (those over 65) to eight percent (35-44 year olds). Volunteers from all age groups expressed the motive “to serve my country” although the 18-24 year olds admitted that they wanted to gain professional experience. Patriotism is a major factor in sport volunteering, especially is international sporting event such as the Olympics as they feel directly affected by the holding of the games. Ralston, Downward and Lumsdon (2004) evaluated the expectations of volunteers and their attitude towards functional management through a qualitative research based on a focus group study drawn from the volunteers from the XVII Commonwealth Games in Manchester held in 2002. The Games recruited and trained the largest number of volunteers in the UK. The opportunity to meet “rather than just stay behind the wall” or the desire to achieve a sense of involvement with the local community appears to be the strongest motive for volunteers at the Commonwealth Games. Others found it rewarding as it enabled them to help others or widen their horizons or gain new experiences. As in the case of volunteers in other sectors, in sport volunteering too, the youth participated to enhance their career opportunities. The older females volunteered to fill a gap in their lives or to experience change. Younger females engaged in sporting activity at least once a week. The authors contend that sport volunteers seek fulfillment of a psychological contract from the outset and not only during the sporting event. Since the volunteers derive satisfaction and intrinsic reward, word-of-mouth publicity can serve to draw others into the fold, thereby enhancing the feeling of citizenship. However, sports volunteerism is critical not just to the sport industry but to voluntary sector as well. In Australia and Canada over 1 million people volunteer for sports organizations while in England 4.5 million people engage in volunteering in sports (Doherty, 2006). Of the total volunteerism in these countries, one-quarter of all volunteers from Australia and England and about one-fifth from Canada are involved in the sports sector. The sports industry relies on volunteers and sports volunteers make up a substantial portion of the voluntary sector. Sports volunteers are more likely to be male, younger and involved than volunteers in other sectors. However, there has been a decline in the rate of volunteering even as the demand for professional volunteers has increased due to the growth in the sports industry. The number and size of sports events have also increased that rely heavily on volunteers. There is also a demand for greater sophistication in the management of voluntary sports organizations and events. All these imply the changing nature of sport volunteerism and hence require a focused understanding of sports volunteering as the barriers to sports volunteering has been on the increase. 2.7 Barriers to Sports Volunteering The sports clubs need to understand the barriers to volunteering and develop strategies to reduce these, emphasizes the Irish Sports Council (n.d.). The vast majority of the sports clubs do not provide the necessary training and education to the volunteers before entrusting them with the responsibility for management, operation and coaching. The Irish Sports Council identifies the main barriers to sports volunteering as investment of personal resources, particularly time, skills development and club administration. Time is a measurable and a limited resource and the volunteer would always evaluate whether his time has been well-utilized, exploited or valued by the club. The volunteers must also feel competent to deliver the job expected of them. They must possess the necessary skills and also have the confidence that they can deliver as expected. The club administration has to be efficient and in a position to invest their time in helping the volunteers to develop their skills. Other barriers that deter prospects are the mandatory requirement that one needs to be a club member for a long time; they are also expected to be good at and knowledgeable about the sport, apart from demographics such as age and gender that create barriers to volunteering in sports. Age and gender in particular, place the volunteers at discomfort. Men in sports volunteering are forced to resign from their position because of power struggle while women choose to resign because of their dislike for power struggle (Doherty, 2006). Barriers to sports volunteering include volunteer burnout which creates the challenges of recruiting and retaining volunteers (Hoeber, 2010). Barriers to volunteering have been identified by Taylor et al (2003) and these have been tabulated below: Table 2.4 Main reasons for stopping volunteering in sport Taylor et al (2003). In addition to the reasons stated above, other reasons have been cited for people not willing to volunteer in sport. These include lack of knowledge on how to go about it and that they were not asked to volunteer. Therefore, motivation appears to be lacking in sports volunteering. 2.8 Sports Volunteer Motivations The benefits of youth sport participation can be achieved only with effective adult participation. Kim, Zhang and Connaughton (2009) contend that the involvement of parents in the sport activities of their children increases the enthusiasm of the children. The majority of the volunteers in functions such as coaches, administrators and managers are parents. However, parents may not be skilled or formally trained for the positions. Therefore to recruit and retain quality volunteers it helps to understand the psychological state of the people who intend to stay, engage or leave as volunteers. The authors state that motivation is the key construct when attempting to understand the actions of an individual. Motivation moves people to plan, initiate, direct and sustain actions. Hence understanding volunteer motivation would help to recruit and retain quality sport volunteers. In youth sport organizations the motivation levels and causes may differ. In youth sport organizations there was a high level of child-caring motivation but they were not motivated for volunteering training. Generally altruism, family involvement and personal satisfaction have been identified as the motivation to volunteer in sport organizations. In the British Sports Club 63% volunteered for self-interest while 44% donated their time and effort to help people and program operations. The authors Kim et al further cite that others have evaluated sport motivation based on three incentive dimensions – utilitarian, affective and normative. Utilitarian motivation includes indirect benefits and not reimbursement of expenses while affective incentives include interpersonal relationships such as enhanced friendship and prestige. Normative incentive refers to altruism or the desire to help others. Others refer to these motivations by different terms such as purposive, solidarity, and material incentives. It has been found that purposive or supporting the community and the national team is the strongest motivation while material incentive is the least important motive among volunteers. The tourism sector also covers major sports events. In tourism event-volunteer research is a well-developed segment. A positive attitude and motivation to volunteering in tourism is often related to community participation (Gallarza, Arteaga, Floristán & Gil, 2009). However, the economic value of sports volunteering encourages the state to ensure sport volunteering is given prominence. Economics (Value) of Sports Volunteering Despite volunteering in sport being deeply rooted in history, because of its unpaid nature, volunteering is not recorded in the official statistics on economic activity. However, the economic importance of the voluntary sector in sport comprises of two parts – the economic contribution (value-added) of the voluntary sector to sports sector and the value of volunteer labour market (HEC, 2012). Several studies to evaluate the economic contribution of volunteering in sport have been undertaken at the national and regional levels. These include Centre for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences, Henley Centre for Forecasting, Leisure Research Industries Centre and Sport England has also published a report on the eco value of sport volunteering. These studies found that the contribution of the voluntary sector to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the sports industry amounted to 12.3% of sport-related value-added in England in 2000. This was equivalent to £1210.07 million. This does not include the value of volunteer labour. However, the reliability of the data collected is debated as not all studies collected primary data to arrive at the figures. Since the calculation of economic value of sports volunteering was not a regular practice, importance to sports volunteering may not have been provided. Based on data from Survey of Sport and Physical Exercise (SSPE) ESRI found that 15% of adults had involvement in sport volunteering of which 18% were men and 12% women (IIEC, 2012). This translates into 420,000 volunteers. SSPE data is unique as it enables to calculate the number of sporting activities for which people volunteer. Based on this it has been estimated that 14.4% of the population volunteer at least for one or more forms of sport activity, 4.5% volunteer for two or more forms of sport activity, and 1.5% volunteer for three or more forms of sport activity. Presuming that each session lasts for an hour, it can be calculated that volunteers spend on an average 1.7 hours per week in sport volunteering. This contradicts the findings of the Irish Sports Monitor which found that average time spent on sport volunteering was 5.2 hours per week. Because of the contradictory figures, Indecon International Economic Consultants conducted a fresh study estimating the economic value of sport volunteering. Their study primarily based in Ireland, found that about 270,000 people participate on some form of sport volunteering. Annually this amounts to 37.2 million volunteer hours spent on sport related activity. This study calculated that the annual value of volunteering in sport was between €322 million and €582 million annually. This has been shown in the table below. Volunteers form the labour input and without them there would be fewer sport activities or these would be costlier. Therefore, volunteers play a major role in sustaining the high level of sporting activity in Ireland. This also indicates that volunteers contribute in other ways than just reduction in wages to paid employees. High level of sporting activity also indirectly generates revenue for the sector. Table I Economic Value of Volunteering in Sport Source: IIEC (2010). To value the economic contribution of voluntary labour also there is no widely accepted method for quantifying the value of volunteers to the sport industry as no monetary exchange is involved. However, Opportunity Cost Method has been employed to evaluate the economic contribution of voluntary labour. Studies have used a shadow wage of 50% of the average manual workers earning to calculate voluntary labour. Davie further cites that research on volunteer labour suggests that volunteers are more likely to come from higher socio-economic groups and have higher than average level of educational attainment. The justification for such assumption is based on the fact that people from lower socio-economic groups would be engaged in paid labour for their sustenance. Therefore, using 50% of the average manual workers estimate may not be appropriate. Different studies have used different shadow wages and hence the outcome may differ. The economic value of sports volunteering in England is estimated to be approximately £2 billion per annum (Sportandrecreation, 2012). This figure has been based on the mean hourly wage after taking into account the cost it would take to employ full time workers to carry out the work of sports volunteers. It is estimated that about 2 million adults contribute at least one hour a week to volunteering in sport. Therefore the government support for sports volunteering is essential and justified. 2.9 Conclusion Volunteering is a service offered out of free will to serve the society. The definitions of volunteering and volunteerism range from being altruistic to engaging in unpaid activity. While generally no monetary exchange takes place, at times direct expenses incurred may be reimbursed. The literature review reveals that volunteering in general and in sports have the same characteristics, the same age demographics and the same gender similarities. The motives too are similar in both cases although the motives differ across age and gender. Volunteering contributes to the well-being of the older adults. However, in the case of students the incentive to volunteer is career progression. Volunteering in general has been on the decline but episodic volunteering is on the rise. The most popular sector where volunteering is offered, is the sports sector. Sport volunteering however, is usually taken up by parents of the children participating in sports as it serves to motivate the children. Most people engage in volunteering as they receive intrinsic rewards. At the same time, volunteering has been found to deliver great economy value. Time is the greatest barrier to volunteering in both the sports and general volunteering. Organizations may also not be prepared to attract and retain volunteers. The economic value of volunteering is immense as the volunteers give back £14 for every 1£ spent on them. This should encourage the government and authorities to encourage volunteering as it helps the economy in so many ways. It enhances careers, helps maintain well-being, provides self-satisfaction, and promotes responsibility towards the society. References 3s4. 2011. Trends in volunteering. Third Sector Foresight. 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