Reasons for Delay in the Introduction of Universal Suffrage in France - Essay Example

Why Was There A Considerable Delay To The Introduction of Universal Suffrage in France? Introduction French citizens were accorded universal suffrage in 1944, merely 70 years ago. Surprisingly, France is regard as the first state to institutionalise a formal framework of laws referred to as the Napoleon civil code of 1804. This present essay is aimed at discussing the reasons for the delay in the introduction of universal suffrage in France. The discussion will first provide an overview of suffrage process in France, both the male suffrage and universal suffrage. An account of events that have signified the suffrage process will be highlighted thus demonstrating the causes of the delay. The second section will provide a detailed description of the Napoleon laws and how they were regressive to women’s right. An examination of the socio political doctrines of French legislators and the dynamics that hindered women’s rights to vote including the role of the fight for power in the delay will follow. Further discussions on the limitations and lack of structured leadership of the women’s right movement will also indicate the reasons for the delay. Eventually the essay will discuss the changes in French law that allowed women to vote and contend for official positions. Suffrage in France Daley (1994) defined suffrage as individual’s right to vote and provision of an opportunity to vote. Similarly, universal suffrage refers to extension of provision of voting rights to adult members of the society, both male and female. Daley (1994) further argued that universal suffrage is mainly intended to safeguard members of the public from being excluded in the voting process either as a voter or a candidate based on one’s religion, social class, knowledge, race and gender. France became the first country to grant universal suffrage to male citizens irrespective of their religion or race during the French revolution. The French revolution began as noble campaign by members of the Third estate who were agitating for a head count voting system as opposed to voting as parts of an estate in 1789. The fall of Bastille on July 14 1789 led to constitutional revolution that culminated to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens. Under the declaration, only white men who had attained stipulated property provisions were allowed to vote. However, in 1972, the property provision was excluded and the voting process was based on universal manhood suffrage. Alarmingly, political emancipation of French women was never achieved until 1945. Women in France voted for the first time on 29th April in 1945 during the municipal elections and for the general elections on 21st October in the same year. The Napoleon Civil Code of 1804 Although the French civil code by Napoleon I was the first legally binding constitutional code in the European community, it had regressive effect on the rights of French women. It marked the beginning of female oppression by the ruling authorities and men in the society. Under the civil code, the husband had full control over his wife and her health. After marriage, the husband became the custodian of wife’s property and required no consent on any undertaking that pertained to the property. The code also lacked provisions for divorce cases and hence cases of adultery by husband could not be regarded as legal grounds for seeking divorce by the wife. However, Schwartz (1998) argued that the civil code empowered the civil rights of women but failed on ensuring gender equality and liberty. In relation to equality, the code limited women’s property rights and full citizenship. Female members of the society were prohibited from voting or seeking elective positions. Consequently, the civil code established a legal and social framework that becameembedded permanently in the French society. Significant events in the struggle for universal suffrage in France According to Lovenduski (1986), women actively participated in the French revolution with high expectation of emancipation from their social, political and economical challenges. However, in the earlier stages of the revolution, much emphasis was placed on female education. Public figures including writers and journalist began to voice their views concerning benefits of girl child education. One such writer was Jean Jacques Rousseau whose book titled Emile, articulated how it was requisite for women to gain education. Rousseau argued that education was an essential tool that could facilitate freedom of women from financial dependency on their husband. Mouré (2002) noted that women lacked financial resources to bankroll campaign programs and public awareness creation on women’s rights and universal suffrage. Majority of women could only secure employment opportunities as peasants, shop attendants and laundresses. Widespread campaign for women rights was first observed in 1789 when king Lous XVI invited the three estates, the clergy, the nobility and the third estate to discuss financial state of France. However, the king did include a female representative in his emissaries. Consequently, women sent their personal grievances to the king individually. With the fall of Bastille in 1789, women movements gained momentum. Women began to attend political meetings that were predominantly chaired by men. In 1790, Marie-Jean Caritat and Marquis de Condorcet published an article supporting full political rights for women. The article was highly influential especially among proponents of women rights. Led by Etta Palm de’ Aelders , crusaders of women’s political rights formed the cercle social, a campaign outfit which fought for women rights at the local level. Marie Gouze was also a significant figure in the emancipation of French women. Marie was a playwright known for her publication of “Declaration of the rights of woman” which was based on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. She asserted that women were entitled to equal rights as their counterparts, men and the law should provide for equal representation. Marie was accused of incitement and propaganda and was killed by guillotine in 1793. Foley (2004) wrote that the French revolution was highly characterized with anticlericalism. Majority of anticlerics were opposed to women rights. These members believed that women were weak and susceptible to external influence hence should not be allowed to vote. Lack of legislation by incumbent regime ensured maintenance of regressive customs and laws of the state that undermined women’s right. Feeling neglected by the revolution government, women began to organise public riot against the national assemblies. In 1792 and 1793, women collectively organised and executed nationwide riots over escalating food prices. At the same time, female clubs began to emerge. Female clubs were essentially intended to provide political education to members and further establish a platform for expression. In May 1793, the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women (SRRW) was established. Increased political and legal pressure from women’s right crusaders and political clubs forced the revolutionary government to introduce divorce. Women gained equal rights to file for divorce and girls were granted equal rights to inheritance of family property under the new code. In order to safeguard the ideology of the revolution process, the government accused SRRW of incitation and propaganda and went ahead to outlaw all women clubs in 1793. Crusaders of women suffrage emerged again in the late 1860s with the resolution to attain full political rights of women. Surprisingly, nationwide up rise for women rights in Britain and United States were ongoing in the same period. Julie –Victoire Daubie is regarded as the leader the second movement of feminists seeking recognition of women suffrage in France. She revived the debate on women’s right to vote through her two books titled La Femme pauvre, and LEmancipation  de Ia femme en dix livraisons (1871). The political stratum of France was adversely by the defeat of France by Germany in 1870, the collapse of the second empire and the election that occurred in 1871. The new constituted national assembly had limited members from the Republicans faction hence significant legislation of women rights could not be possible. Late 19th century was characterized with severe political warfare between the anticlerical Republicans and monarchist Catholics. Anticlerics believed that women were susceptible to manipulation of the catholic hence they opposed women suffrage since they would eventually vote for clergy. Eventually the Republicans seized control of major institutions in the country in 1880. The Republicans established government sponsored secondary schools for girls to symbolize the party’s commitment to women equality. Hubertine Auclert, a Republican adherent, further advocated for political equality for every woman noting that denial of full citizenship to women did not correspond with true republic. She also established a feminist periodical that was entitled Female Citizen. In 1885, Louise Barbarousse and Marie Richard Picot attempted to register as voters under the electoral law of 1884. The municipal council of Paris denied their request. In 1894, Rennes judge Raoul de la Grasserie for the first time argued for women suffrage in La Femme pauvre, then in LEmancipation  de Ia femme en dix livraisons (1871 ). The judge further proposed that women be allowed to seek political offices in elections. Eventually in 1900, an agenda on woman suffrage was placed on the Chamber of Deputies for the first time in history. Factors that led to the delay of universal suffrage Although majority of historians regards Napoleon I civil codes of 1804 as the epitome of civil enlightenment of the 19th century, closer examinations reveals otherwise. The set of codes which sysmbolized the core values of the French revolution greatly subordinated women. Daley (1994) argued that the civil codes were the genesis of the delay of female suffrage in France. The codes stipulated that upon marriage women automatically acquired the citizenship of their husbands. Under such provisions, women were not accommodated full citizenship like their counterparts, men. Women were also required to reside where their husbands deemed fit. Another regressive provision of the code highly limited the civil rights of women. Women were prohibited from participating in court case as witnesses to civil proceedings such as births, deaths and marriages. The provisions of the civil codes directly demonstrated the sexual division of roles and human rights between men and women. Napoleon codes did not only subordinate women but also violated basic rights of women which included freedom of movement and right of citizenship. Under the divorce act, severe sanctions were provided for women in case of adultery. Women risked imprisonment and hefty fines if they committed adultery. On the contrary, the code was more lenient to men. Men were not subjected to imprisonment or fines when accused of adultery, unless they had brought their mistresses to their homes. The property code further stripped off women all their property rights. The husband was granted administrative control of all properties held by his wife. Women who were employed, mostly as peasants and shopkeepers, the husbands controlled their wages. Women were allowed to conduct business activities with the condition that they first sought approval from their husbands. Nevertheless, the opportunity came with its risks. Business women obtained new legal status in that she could be sued and yet the husband still controlled her profits. Furthermore, female members of the society were prohibited from voting or seeking elective positions. The Napoleon codes were evidently regressive to women rights. The civil codes established a legal framework that directly undermined equality and liberty of the French women. The newly introduced property laws weakened women economically since the husband was the primary custodian of the finances. Married women were also more likely to be discriminated and oppressed by their husbands due to biasness of the divorce act. In his studies, Lovenduski (1986) noted that the predominant political attitude of the French during and after the revolution could have also contributed to the delay of the universal suffrage in the country. Women suffrage struggle in the third republic of France (1870 -1940) was primarily shaped by the socio-political agendas of two political factions, the anticlerics Republicans and the monarchic Catholics. Proponents of anticlericism were mainly secular leaders drawn from the scientific community and republican professionals. Female suffrage was strongly opposed by members of the Catholic Church whose political doctrines and belief were based on the papal encyclicals of Leo XIII, Pius XI and Benedict XV. The papal letters emphasized the subordinate position of women as stipulated by the Christian bible and further formulated their ideals of women and her roles around the biblical narration of Virgin Mary. Although explicitly the Republicans were proponents of female suffrage, members implicitly believed in the separation of roles based on gender. Consequently, the Republicans found themselves in a dilemma on the definition of the new roles of women in the society. Although anticlerics firmly supported majority of women rights including access to freedom, they opposed female suffrage. Republicans considered women malleable, hence when granted universal suffrage women could be influenced by the monarchic Catholics. As a result, major legislation of the third republic hindered the progress of the female suffrage in the country. This was attributed to radicals in the senate who were fierce proponents of social conservatism in addition to their clerical fears. Lovenduski (1986) further argued that the fragmented structure, varied class interest and the absence of elaborate leadership in the women’s right movement in France could have also led to the delay of the universal suffrage in France. Daley (1994) argued that women from different social classes in the warfront for gender equality did not share common interest. The author noted that working class women identified gender equality with an opportunity to better their living conditions while the French bourgeois females viewed gender equality as means to gain equal social status with men. Furthermore, there was unusual prevalence of peaceful campaigns by women activists in France. Mouré (2002) further noted that the conspicuously absence of French feminist in the list of renown global feminists is an indication of a weaker suffrage movement in France. Political polarisation that marked the third republic in1870s was a precursor of gender-based legislation and institutionalisation that was to follow. The political struggle between the Republicans and the Catholics ended in 1880 after the Republicans gained control of pertinent government institutions. The Republicans further established secondary schools for girls. By interpretation of historic precedents, numerous activists attempted to register as voters but were barred by the court system. In 1900, the chamber of deputies discussed for the first time women suffrage. In the same year, a reformer and journalist, Marguerite Durand organised an international convention on women rights in Paris. Consequently, between 1901 and 1906 two suffrage bills were tabled in the Chamber of Deputies. The first bill proposed for suffrage rights of unmarried women in the municipal and legislative elections. The second bill proposed to grant all female adults voting rights in the municipal and departmental election processes. With the first introduction of suffrage bills in the Chamber of Deputies, the suffrage campaign transcended political boundaries as Catholic and Socialist women organised political movements which agitated for legislature of female suffrage. In 1909, Jeanne Schmahl, Cecile Brunschvicg and Marguerite de WittSchlumberger hosted the union francaise pour le suffrage femmes ( UFSF) which became an affiliate of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance . The Chamber of Deputies held its first discussion on the issue of women’s suffrage in may 1919. Unfortunately, the First World War deteriorated the legislative rate of female suffrage. The Chamber of Deputies approved the proposal on female suffrage three times, in 1925, 1932 and 1935 but the senate inclined to enact the proposals. Realizing that its fraternity could benefit from female votes, the Catholic officially supported women suffrage in 1919. The church shifted its focus to improvement of maternity conditions and protection of the family. Thus, 1920s and 1930s anticlerical supporters of female suffrage opted to form alliance with Catholics supporters of familial votes. In April 1944 through the decree of General Charles de Gaulle, universal suffrage was granted in France. The decree was accorded as gift of the liberation process and as a political gesture of the newly instituted government Conclusion Historically, scholars have questioned why universal suffrage was delayed in France, yet the country was the first to accord male suffrage. The role of the French woman has been a subject of widespread debate by both political parties and the religious sect. Under the ruling of numerous regimes, women in France were considered as subordinate to men and were not afforded equal social, political and economical status. Studies indicated that Napoleon civil code of 1804 cemented the widely held view that women were inferior sex. Such provisions resulted to violation of women rights and discrimination of the girl child in the society in terms of access to education, employment and property. This led to the onset of political and civil struggle for women rights. From the discussion, it emerged that the primary focus of the women movement shifted from agitation for women rights to female suffrage during the revolution period. Women believed that the electoral process granted them an opportunity to decide on a leader who could represent their grievances at the national level and hence improve their status. It has emerged that deliberate unwillingness by male members of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate was the main reason for the delay in the attainment of universal suffrage in France. Although other impediment in the women’s struggle for a universal suffrage existed, conservative forces in the senate were opposed to women voting. The legislators feared that women would grant the monarchist Catholic power in the subsequent elections. The male fraternity were also uncomfortable with the unification of roles between male and female. It should also be noted that although women were finally granted universal suffrage, it was the general’s decree that provided for the rights hence the senate could have delayed the universal suffrage later than 1944. References Daley, C. (1994). Suffrage And Beyond: International Feminist Perspectives. New York, New York University Press. Foley, Susan K (2004). Women In France Since 1789. Basingstoke : Macmillan, Palgrave. Mouré, K. (2002). Crisis And Renewal In France: 1918-1962. New York, Berghahn Books. Lovenduski, J. (1986). Women And European Politics: Contemporary Feminism And Public Policy. Amherst, University of Massachusetts Press. Schwartz, B. (1998). The Code Napoleon And The Common-Law World: The Sesquicentennial Lectures Delivered At The Law Center Of New York University, December 13-15, 1954. Union, N.J., Lawbook Exchange. Read More