Ways to Address Cancer Threat - Assignment Example

Assignment After reviewing this weeks material on cancer, suggest at least two (2) ways to address and communicate this threat to the public. Photo voice is one way of addressing threats of cancer to the public. Photos and narratives improve the vulnerability of populations in promoting community health (Mayfield-Johnson, Rachal & Butler, 2014). Social media has a large audience and it is an affordable method of passing crucial messages. Therefore, it is another effective method of communicating the threats of cancer to the public. Recommend five (5) steps to cancer prevention. Provide rationale for your response. Screening tests are helpful in early cancer detection. An example is the Pap smear test to screen for cervical cancer. The human papillomavirus that causes cervical cancer is detectable. In addition, surgeries and medical therapies prevent cancer in patients who are at a high risk of getting cancer due to their genes. There are women who opt to undergo mastectomy even before they get the cancer because some of their close relatives have breast cancer (Eccles, 2011). Immunizations are important in protecting people from viral infections like hepatitis B, which increases risks of liver cancer, and HPV, which is responsible for cervical cancer. Moreover, people should lead healthy lifestyles by exercising regularly, eating healthy diets and avoiding tobacco. High cholesterols associated with unhealthy diets and not exercising leads to high estrogen levels, which may cause breast cancer and tobacco causes lung cancer. People should also avoid long exposure to the sun and x-rays as this may cause skin cancer (Eccles, 2011). 2. Analyze the different types of cancer, Breast cancer Breast cancer starts in the breast’s tissues. Genes, family history, early onset of menstrual cycle or late menopause and other factors like gender and age are the causes of breast cancer. Its symptoms include fluid coming out of the nipples or lumps. It is tested using MRI, ultrasound or biopsy. Treatments include mastectomy, lumpectomy, chemotherapy and radiation therapy (A.D.A.M, 2013). Prostate cancer Prostate cancer starts in the prostate glands around the urethra. African American men and men over 60 years of age have a high risk of getting prostate cancer. Symptoms appear later as the cancer grows larger and they include leaking urine, blood in urine and slow urinary system. Testing is done using MRI, scans and biopsy. It is treated using surgery and radiation therapy (A.D.A.M, 2013). Cervical cancer Cervical cancer starts at the cervical cells. Women with multiple sexual partners and those who started having sex at an early age have a higher risk of getting cervical cancer. Symptoms include heavy menstruation, vaginal discharge and abnormal vaginal bleeding. Pap smear, con biopsy and cervix magnification detect cervical cancer. LEEP, cryotherapy, laser therapy and hysterectomy are the treatments available for cervical cancer (A.D.A.M, 2013). Evaluate the pragmatic value of early cancer detection. Planning is important for people who need to shelter their assets from long-term cancer care (Enea, 2013). Purchase of a long-term insurance cover ensures that cancer treatment uses a smaller amount, as the cost of purchasing a cover is less than that of paying for treatment using cash. Long-term cancer patients can also transfer part of their assets to a Medicaid Asset Protection Trust to ensure nursing care. Moreover, the long-term cancer patients can transfer their assets to family or friends in order to qualify for the Medicaid state program (Enea, 2013). Cancer screening trials show that detection of autoantibodies before the clinical diagnosis is possible (Pedersen et al, 2013). Studies show that early detection leads to prevention of cancer. People are better prepared although in some cases, the realization at an early stage shocks some people and they ignore treatment. This is better than the late diagnosis where people find out that they have cancer while it is at an advanced stage. 3. Analyze and evaluate the various measures of screening test validation, To decide on the cancer-screening test with the best diagnostic accuracy, scientists use paired comparison of characteristic trends (Ringham, Alonzo, Brinton, Kreidler, Munjal, Muller, & Glueck, 2014). Screening is done for all the participants of the paired comparison, with both tests, and those with suspicious results; signs or symptoms are given the standard reference test. All participants appear in the standard analysis, which creates bias in estimates of accuracy, since not every participant gets disease status verification. The paired comparison is analyzed to determine its ability to reduce the errors, relationship between screening test results, the interval case rate and the number of participants who are given the standard reference test. The method’s outcome depends on the characteristics of a screening test and on the number of participants who get the standard reference test. The bias correction method improves power for the right decision. In order to determine the necessity of a bias correction, a simulation study should be conducted (Ringham, Alonzo, Brinton, Kreidler, Munjal, Muller, & Glueck, 2014). Comment on the efficacy of screening programs in your community. (North Carolina). Cancer is the leading cause of deaths in North Carolina (Opuku-Dapaah, 2013). Screening programs have reduced the mortality rate of cancer patients in North Carolina because early detection ensures treatment. In addition, there are changes in the prevalence of some conditions. An example is the HPV whereby, now there are vaccinations available. Moreover, there is genetic screening that targets people with a higher risk of specific cancers. 4. Applying the concepts of sensitivity and specificity to prostate cancer screening, evaluate the cost effectiveness of having screenings for men over 50 years of age. In 2010, the American Cancer Society gave the guidelines for early prostate cancer detection and emphasized on the importance of making informed decisions when it came to screening options (Nichol, Wu, Huang, Denham, Frencher & Jacobsen, 2012). A model was developed to evaluate the expenses of screening men over 50 years of age for early prostate cancer detections. The research was based on men who were at least 50 years of age. Two analyses were performed for men aged 50-64 and 65-75 years old. The ratio for incremental cost-effectiveness was then calculated. The dominant strategy is the one that is cheaper but more effective. The prostate health index (phi) is a combination of prostate specific antigen (PSA). It was developed for calculation of the probability of developing prostate cancer and differentiating between prostate cancer and prostatic conditions that are benign. The value of screening prostate cancer is unknown. Early detection leads to early treatment of curable diseases but the screening may have negative consequences such as bowel, urinary and sexual problems. Specificity increment methods for prostate cancer are useful in minimizing the negative effects of screening (Nichol, Wu, Huang, Denham, Frencher & Jacobsen, 2012). Sensitivity analysis (one-way) showed that the results of the research conducted were significantly affected by the start and stop age of the screening and the discount rate. The Monte Carlo simulation revealed that the PSA plus phi was the dominant strategy. The PSA plus phi reduces costs and it is more effective than the PSA test alone (Nichol, Wu, Huang, Denham, Frencher & Jacobsen, 2012). Reference A.D.A.M. (2013). Pub Med Health. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth Eccles, D. M. (2011). Development of Genetic Testing for Breast, Ovarian and Colorectal Cancer Predisposition: A Step Closer to Targeted Cancer Prevention. Current Drug Targets, 12(13), 1974-1982 ENEA, A. J. (2013). The burden of long-term care costs. Westchester County Business Journal, 49(24), 21 Mayfield-Johnson, S., Rachal, J. R., & Butler, J. (2014). “When We Learn Better, We Do Better”: Describing Changes in Empowerment Through Photovoice Among Community Health Advisors in a Breast and Cervical Cancer Health Promotion Program in Mississippi and Alabama. Adult Education Quarterly, 64(2), 91-109. doi:10.1177/0741713614521862 Nichol, M. B., Wu, J., Huang, J., Denham, D., Frencher, S. K., & Jacobsen, S. J. (2012). Cost- effectiveness of Prostate Health Index for prostate cancer detection. BJU International, 110(3), 353-362. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10751.x Opoku-Dapaah, E. (2013). Use of Cancer Screening by African Immigrants in NC. Journal Of Best Practices In Health Professions Diversity: Education, Research & Policy, 6(1), 926- 940 Pedersen, J., Gentry-Maharaj, A., Fourkala, E., Dawnay, A., Burnell, M., Zaikin, A., & ... Wandall, H. (2013). Early detection of cancer in the general population: a blinded case-control study of p53 autoantibodies in colorectal cancer. British Journal Of Cancer, 108(1), 107-114. doi:10.1038/bjc.2012.517 Ringham, B. M., Alonzo, T. A., Brinton, J. T., Kreidler, S. M., Munjal, A., Muller, K. E., & Glueck, D. H. (2014). Reducing decision errors in the paired comparison of the diagnostic accuracy of screening tests with Gaussian outcomes. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 14(1), 1-23. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-14-37 Read More