Should Human cloning be allowed - Essay Example

? Ethical Issues Relating to Human Cloning Ethical Issues Relating to Human Cloning Development in clone technology and successful cloning research in nature have raised arguments and opinions about the probability of human cloning in the future. In spite of the numerous opposing views, this is not merely a probability but a reality. Human cloning is a medical transformation. On the other hand, it furthermore brings about the possibility for bodily and mental damage to human beings. From this perspective, it brings about extreme ethical, social and medical related alarms. In the field of nursing, human cloning has a significant impact for the reason that it leads to bodily and mental problems that will need close nursing care. This explains the reason why the nursing career has to consequently analyze the ethical concerns of human cloning, in precise the possible nursing perspective. This paper evaluates the ethical concerns of human cloning and justifies why human cloning should not be allowed in both ethical view and nursing point of view. By this means, the paper presents the ethical considerations of reproductive human cloning, argues the significant causes of concern and brings into the picture a nursing point of view on the subject of human cloning. Keywords: Human cloning, nursing, nursing profession restorative cloning, reproductive cloning Introduction Development in genetics and biotechnology has led to formerly unexpected probabilities, one of which is human cloning. Research in cloning has been in existence since 1970s where frogs and toads have been researched upon. Tests related to plants and animal origin has been carried out for many years. On the other hand, tests on human beings have not been attempted or thought likely. This is until “Dolly” was scientifically tested. The birth of “Dolly” surprised many in the medical and nursing industry leading to a lot of arguments on the probability of human cloning. As a result of the cloning of “Dolly”, animals such as calves, mice, monkeys, pigs and rabbits were tested on a wide range of somatic cell nuclear donors (Campbell, McWhir, Ritchie & Wilmut, 1996). Cloning of animal has created a lot of debates and arguments in the recent times on the subject of the probability of human cloning. Numerous organizations for instance the World Health Organization (1997) and the European Parliament (1997) have articulated the argument that human cloning is ethically undesirable and have called for banning of its development. In USA, The National Bioethics Advisory Commission suggested a suspension on cloning offspring via somatic cell nuclear transplants. Over and above, it is not merely a probability but a reality to all stake holders and nurses at large. The Definition of Cloning Cloning is the invention of one or more distinctive plants or animals which are hereditarily the same to distinctive plants or animals. This is a practice that has been applied for many years now in plants and insects by the use of varying medical procedures. On the other hand, cloning of the mammals is a new advancement in spite of “Dolly” the sheep which was the earliest achievement. In reproductive cloning, two procedures have been applied which includes the embryo division and somatic cell nuclear transplant. In this paper, the term ‘cloning’ implies to the creation of hereditarily similar creatures through somatic cell nuclear transplant, a medical procedure that entails getting rid of the nuclear of an unfertilized egg cell and substituting it with materials from the nucleus of somatic cells and triggering these cells to begin cell division. The nucleus of the somatic cells supplies the hereditary information, whereas the oocyte offers the food and the mitochondria is responsible for growth of the embryo. There are 2 distinctive kinds of human cloning by use of somatic cell nuclear transplant. This include reproductive and restorative. The significance of human reproductive cloning is to generate an offspring that is hereditarily similar to a different individual. The significance of restorative cloning is to offer matching tissues and organs for healing treatment. The difference flanked by the 2 kinds is that in human reproductive cloning the trans-nuclear egg or recreated zygote is rooted into a woman’s womb. On the other hand, in human restorative cloning, the significance of the trans-nuclear egg will formulate an invitro culture where the stem cells will be obtained. The gathering of the stem cells entails the damaging of the embryo at the blastocyst phase. Reproductive cloning can be applied to help people who are medically proven to be infertile and they cannot have children of their own biologically. Human restorative cloning offers significant advantages for the reason that tissue provision for transferring is inadequate and recipients have to be provided with immunosuppressant medication to prevent negative response of the transferred tissues brought about by hereditary dissimilarities. Human restorative cloning also offers a likelihood of studying the transformed movement of the destroyed cells and the chance to treat diseases for instance the Alzheimer’s Parkinson’s and degenerative neuromuscular and joint ailments. Even though there are assuring advantages of restorative cloning for the well being of others, there exists a possibility for deliberate use of the embryos. Krauthammer (2002) suggests that cloning of embryos merely for studies or restorative objectives does not prevent their reproductive functions. He insists that one or more of these cloned embryos can later on be implanted in a woman’s womb unethically. From the nursing perspective, cloning can be termed as a transformation and an out of the ordinary accomplishment. On the other hand, from the ethical perspective, it brings about social, beliefs and medical alarms. In order to offer a general outlook of the ethical concerns of human cloning and bring in the nursing perspective on the matter, it is imperative to analyze the following factors: The main alarms related to human cloning. How human cloning affects cloned persons, their families, society and the future of mankind. The moral expenses of human cloning. Why nurses should be concerned about human cloning. Ethical Concerns of Human Cloning Probable Bodily Harms The Council of Ethical and Judicial Affairs (CEJA) of the US Medical Association (1998) indicate that somatic cell nuclear transplant is not yet developed and its long term security is not yet established. The danger of creating people with growth problems is critical. The International Council of Nurses (ICN) further suggests that human cloning is both useful and dangerous to human health. It is evident that human cloning can bring about probable bodily harm to human beings. Animal cloning tests by use of somatic cell nuclear transplants illustrates that the effectiveness of the restructured eggs advancing to create a distinctive live birth is at present depleted. For instance in cloning “Dolly” 277 eggs were brought into play, 29 began to split and 9 induced pregnancy. However, only 1 lived to term (Farnsworth, 1999). Correspondingly, in a similar research, 276 nuclear transplants were conducted from fibroblasts and out of 28 embryos were transplanted to 11 cows 3 healthy calves were created (Cibelli, Stice & Golueke et al., 1998). Scientists that have to do with other animal cloning tests have confirmed comparable (Polejaeva, Chen, Vaught, et al., 2000). Wakayama et al., (1998) reported the highest effectiveness scale 2.8%. The probable justifications for the inadequacies are indicated by Polejaeva et al., (2000) to be lab to lab disparity, oocyte source and value, means of embryo culture, donor cell kind, failure to restructure the transferred nucleus adequately, and the failure of stimulated means of instigation to trigger reproducibly the membrane interceded occasions that go together with fertilization. Moorgate (2002) argues that advanced clarification of the molecular methods drawn in for the duration of the process of embryo-genesis and the keen customizing of consequently advanced culture circumstances and manipulation strategies can progress the effectiveness and achievement scale. On the other hand, presently, this inadequacy is a significant predicament and a lot of human eggs or numerous embryos would be required to produce a child. The other consideration is the growth anomalies which have been noted in a number of animals cloned by somatic nuclear transplant. The huge offspring set of symptoms has been a consistent predicament witnessed in a number of live birth animals. In these set of symptoms, the offspring is born gigantic with disproportionally oversize internal organs and consistently has respiratory circulatory and other predicaments (Byrne, 2002). In the test conducted by Cibelli et al., (1998) one of the cloned cows terminated its pregnancy at day 249, prior to the usual conception of a cow, which is roughly 280 days. The terminated fetus was gigantic, the lungs lobes were edematous and the right heart ventricle was oversized. Jaenish and Wilmut in their Journal Don’t Clone Humans, (2001) hypothesize that the most probable justification for the inadequacies and growth anomalies may have been brought about by the failure in the genetics restoration that happens in minutes or hours of nuclear cloning and that can bring about poor regulation of the heredity appearance. A number of the growth anomalies can be linked to the incompatibility flanked by the nuclear and cytoplasm genetic material. In the vast majority of sexual organisms, mitochondria are found in the cytoplasm and the mitochondrial gene is commonly hereditary via the maternal parent (Gurdon, 1999). The functions of the mitochondrion are usually managed by a grouping of nuclear and mitochondrion genetic material. Generally, this progression is continuous. However in other occasions variance begins. This kind of probable variance is likely part of the blame for poor levels of achievements in cloning animals by nuclear transplant (Cummins, 2001). There is alarm that similar anomalies can likely happen subsequent to human cloning. On the other hand, Killian et al., (2001) accounts that the oversized offspring set of symptoms happens to be linked with wrong mark of the IGF2R (insulin like Growth factor 11 receptor) genetic material. However, this gene is not marked in humans, suggesting that fetal overgrowing cannot be expected to happen when humans were cloned. Rhesus monkeys which have been cloned by nuclear transplant of embryonic nuclei have revealed no growth or physiological anomalies (Meng, 1997). This fact sustains the theory of Killian et al., (2001). On the other hand, in order to believe that human cloning will not be cause to undergo growth anomalies, additional medical research needs to be conducted to proof the theory. Presently? the concerns from animal cloning tests is that growth anomalies are like to come about in human cloning. This is why there is a need to find out what will happen whenever a fetus is discovered to have growth anomalies when it reaches an end to term. It can be argued rightfully that as the cloned embryo can be hereditarily similar to the donor adult cell, so therefore most likely the adult will have undergone hereditary analysis before the process. In spite of this, there are means on hand presently or likely to be in the future for analyzing the general epigenetic status of the nuclear gene (Jaenish et al., 2001). Conversely, for the reason that the mitochondrial gene of the clone will be at variance from that of the nuclear parent, the origin of the oocyte cell is supposed to be taken through hereditary analysis. Beyond 30 different genetic loci have been realized in mitochondrial DNA, transformations of which lead to distinct human ailments in varying tissues and organs, extending in effects on a scale from troubling to fatal in any given person (Roberts,1999). Roberts recommends that the human cloning process can be applied as an option to the means to get rid of the likelihood of mitochondrial ailments in affected families by us of egg contribution from blood related side of the family (Roberts, 1999). He additionally indicates that still in evidently familial scenarios, no prenatal indicative observations can establish if mitochondrial ailments will come about in the postnatal stage. The calculation of a serious percentage of anomaly mitochondria in every tissue is not achievable. The objective of this paper is not to evaluate the prenatal or pre-implantation hereditary analysis. However, the above mentioned arguments show that there is still inadequate information on how hereditary tests factually calculate risks. The probability of producing animal or human hybrids via the application of cloning methods has added likelihood for physical harms. It is clear that in most experiments conducted, there exist ethical and political arguments raised. In most of them, there exists a need to create treatment solutions to most of human ailments. However, there is a probability of creating a new life for instance when integrating human genes with that of other species. This will lead to more ethical arguments regarding respect to human life. This can also be a dangerous process which may lead to the likelihood of transmitting infectious ailments or disease causing organisms from animals or even lead to formation of strange physical damage to humankind. This is why it is imperative to find out various factors which include whether: There is a likelihood of survival of human clones. The new creation will be acceptable in the society. The real humans will become inferior to the clones. The benefits will outdo the disadvantages. The possibility for human cloning to lead to physical harms goes against the basic ethical principles for nonmaleficence which is derivative from the known medical rules. These rules indicate that medical practitioners need not to cause harm to patients. It also states that no human being should be harmed. In most cases, the rule of beneficence explained as doing well is put together with the rule of nonmaleficence. On the other hand, there are many ethical issues regarding human cloning that conflict with these two rules (Thompson, 1988). For example, chemotherapy has critical and unfavorable side effects. In such scenarios, the rule of nonmaleficence is not essentially dishonored whenever rightful balance of the advantages is in existence. The harm is not precisely anticipated but is to a certain extent an unforeseen side effect of making efforts to advance an individual’s health. In this perspective, Savulescu (2008) argues that in the occurrence of embryonic stem cell study, the anomaly likelihood to protect individual’s life and to make better the standards of life prevails over the wrongs of damaging some embryos. Therefore, in reproductive health, the advantages of creating an identical offspring should be measured up to the ethical consideration of prospective growth anomalies and or the unforeseen physical harms. Additionally, despite the fact that it may not be so troubling as restorative cloning, the standards of extra embryos in reproductive cloning is further contentious for the reason that this process generates the possibility of excess embryos than is required for transfer. Subsequent to implantation of 1 or 4 of these cloned embryos, the excess may be considered cryostorage for consequent application or they may be used for study reasons. In case they will not be used then they are destroyed. This leads to the argument of the ethical status of a human embryo. Research shows that embryos are dissimilar from sperms or eggs or any other form of cell in a human body. Embryos have DNA, which is the complete human genome. This implies that it has the ability to grow into a full human being. Therefore, this leads to the need for reflective respect to human embryos which carry the prospective representation of human life (Coors, 2002). Perspectives about the ethical standards of human cloning on the subject of embryos are in variance and there may be no specified agreement. However, what is significant is that embryos are living and they have human genomes and have some importance. Above all, having respect to human beings means upholding their rights (Thompson, 1988). From this argument it is wide of the mark to destroy the human embryo and further unethical to represent a fetus to probable anomalies. Consequently, respect for people implies that holding respect to the independence of people and honoring their life (Thompson, 1988). To be independent implies that a person should have liberty to make decisions and to life. On the other hand, neither an embryo nor a fetus has decision making capability and life. Therefore, they are not independent beings. But does this imply that they should not have right to life or respect? How about human beings with certain disabilities like acute learning problems, disabled children or people with mental problems? From this point the community and the nurses are brought into the debate. According to the theory of utilitarianism, individuals do not need to put emphasis in actions but rather into future outcomes of a given event. These outcomes are based on one value which is usefulness of an event, for instance happiness, welfare or pleasure. The value of usefulness should be maximized in every event. From this argument, it is accurate to state that human cloning does not fulfill the value of usefulness, arising from projected consequences that may leave clones and family members/society without happiness, welfare or pleasure. The theory of utilitarianism denotes that individuals are required to offer happiness to the greatest number of individuals. Additionally, the theory of utilitarianism is based on freedom where individuals are given total liberty to do whatever they desire as long as they do not harm or injure anyone. From this argument, human cloning should not be allowed, from an ethical point of view, since if allowed to continue its consequences will harm the life of human beings. Probable Psychological Harms The (CEJA) Council of Ethical and Judicial Affairs (1998) indicate that human cloning has the probability to bring about psychological damages to human beings. The (ICN) International Council of Nurses (1998) also argues that human cloning breaks the right to ones distinctive hereditary uniqueness and self respect. Human reproductive cloning will lead to the hereditary inheritance of a number of impending offspring in present-day human direction. Due to the quality of cloning, the hereditary inclination can lead to abuse of his or her hereditary data. Hereditary data of a cloned person can be retrieved by medical researchers or any other health specialists and also from the patient’s clinical records in hospitals or private treatment centers where this process was conducted. Unintentional or intentional revelation of hereditary data by unqualified people can not only break the discretion and secrecy, it will also lead to prejudice in health care insurance or in the service standards of the individuals. According to (CEJA) Council of Ethical and Judicial Affairs (1998), having insight into individual can lead to stress on and anticipations from a cloned offspring even excessive as compared to the normal children. These stress and anticipations can limit the child’s liberty and independence. Many researchers hold the view that human cloning can create various effects on individual’s sense of self respect, their values as people or their sense of independence in life. When a child discovers that he or she is a cloned, this factor may lead to individual confusion. The discovery of being cloned or being created scientifically or going against nature can be seen as stigmatizing, leading to strong feelings for instance rejection, a feeling of not being himself or herself, and rage with regard to the parents. This kind of sentiments can create character crisis and low self respect. Conversely, the discovery of being cloned, in particular with a favorable hereditary inheritance can be taken as superiority and can lead to over esteem. Brock (2002) argues that human cloning can demoralize the hereditary distinctiveness not our complete uniqueness, for the reason that the complete distinctiveness or self esteem as individuals is established on more than just the gene. He also points out that simply a wrong perspective in hereditary establishment holds the perspective that the liberty of a clone or the independence to create his or her own life can be demoralized through cloning. Eisenberg (1999) argues that the clone cannot be equally measured up to the real individual for the reason that people’s distinctiveness is constructed from their gene and relation with genes in a period of time with the natural surrounding which entails making decisions and forming association with other people. The natural surrounding here is not fixed and it is bound to change and can be changed too by varying conditions. Despite the fact that the natural surroundings of the cloned are similar to the one of the real individual the future of the clone cannot be established (Campbell et al., 1996). Over and above, human cloning is seen as an instance to fulfill useful functions for instance to restore a loved child or make use of tissues for specified people. However, even if the natural surrounding is conducive to the clones, the question is whether it is ethical to advance human cloning. Value to Nursing Cloning as a reproductive procedure is not a nursing role as such neither are the nurses implicated as nurses in this process. This is a hereditary process that targets medical researchers. Therefore, as per this stage of human cloning no families and people need nursing care as a result of cloning (Sanchez-Sweatman, 2000). Considering that human cloning is in the test stage, nurses are not engaged by all means. On the other hand, it is evident that human cloning will affect the psychological and bodily extents and value of life. Nursing on the other hand is a profession that works in providing care to human beings and ensuring that they remain healthy. Human cloning is an issue for nursing due to the fact that it is in connection with human values which form the foundation of nursing. Human values are views and perspectives set on needs and wellbeing of humans. This puts emphasis on the distinctiveness and self respect of individuals. In accordance with Antrobus (1997), human values entail the growth reaction of an individual to another in need while focusing on the individual’s opinions his potential and the nurse patient connection in the situation. Antrobus (1997) explains the argument of caring as being inextricably bound up with human values and practices of nursing. Caring is a profession of the nurses that entails identifying with the values of human beings. Human values are the backbone of ethical guidelines for the reason that individuals hold with high regard. It is what human beings feel deeply about what is correct. Therefore, the way we describe the meaning of life relates to the way we take time to take care of other people depending on how we value their life. When we consider life as good then we will never want to see life getting destroyed (Antrobus, 1997). In this case we will never wish to see another human being harmed. Human cloning can have significant impact on nursing for the reason that it may lead to the development of new bodily and psychological circumstances. These circumstances will affect the cloned offspring, their families and the society in general. All of them will need nursing care, thereby indicating that there is a need for the nurses to tackle the issue of human cloning and reflect on their roles in the subject. Prospective Nursing Roles The role of nurses is in present situation theoretical and likely inadequate for the reason that the forthcoming years may be dissimilar and even unfamiliar than anyone can think. On the other hand, the ethical and medical associated alarms of human cloning offer clues for the years to come. This justifies the need for roles of nursing in the implications of human cloning as listed below. Protector role – Due to the reason that the safety of human cloning is not known, there is a need for the nurses to play a role of upholding the self respect, independence of individuals. They should offer nursing services to individuals irrespective of their genetic background, physical conditions or any other status. Nurses need to provide equal access to medical resources irrespective of hereditary differences particularly for the financially unstable people. Despite the fact that other factors like politics, economic levels of a country and additionally the global and regional differences in allocation of medical resources may affect people rights and independence, nurses still remain important team players. Nurses are best suited to influence these challenging factors and protect the individuals affected suitably. Caregiver role – Progressed restorative means for instance genetic analysis and gene treatment have negative and positive consequences. Therefore, nurses should take good care of the individuals left with health related outcomes and help in making appropriate decisions based on ethical values. This includes ensuring that they are both physical and psychologically taken care of. Nurses can play a role of helping cloned children manage identity crisis in enabling them establish valuable relationships and find reception and dignity. Counseling role - The probable effects of human cloning may be intricate and with medical and technological advancements can be even more complicated. This entails the means that diagnosis and further treatment can be readily available with time. In this regard, there are occasions where individuals may ask questions about human cloning thereby proving that nurses need to be ready to offer counseling guidance in all its implications. This includes couples in need of having cloned children, couples caught up in the dilemma of adopting or having children biologically. It is also known that when effective counseling is provided to parents in search for essential advice for child bearing less anxiety is recorded. The main purpose for counseling is to help individuals make solid decisions that work best in their lives. Educational role - There is a need for nurses to be prepared on issues related to cloning and its implications. It is clear that human cloning is not viable to prevent and scientific information will advance. This entails adding relevant information about human cloning in nursing education so that the nurses can impart the same to the targeted group. On the other hand, professional nursing bodies and associations need to factor in training sessions like seminars, workshops and conference meeting where nurses can get a chance to learn more about human cloning and its implications. This will help diversify the value of human cloning to the nursing profession. Research role - Nurses need to play a significant role in the research process of human cloning in order to fully understand it before dealing with its implications. This will expand the nursing roles and make the nursing profession valuable to the society. Over and above, when nurses participate in studies and experiments regarding human cloning, they will build their knowledge and position as health care team. This will largely contribute to creation of valuable policies on the subject of human cloning. In conclusion, it is not justifiable to state that human cloning does not have anything to do with nursing. Nurses in the profession cannot remain dumb and claim that the problems that arise from human cloning do not affect them. On the other hand, they cannot say that they do not fall on any equation regarding human cloning. This is because nurses form a significant part of the society at large. Over and above, nurses are important health care professionals and similar to the medical researchers, doctors and health care specialists, can be faced with human cloning implications too. In a nut shell, as families and society face the challenges of human clones so does the nurses. This is because it is hard to understand who will take care of children with growth anomalies and the persons who will take care of prospective clones. It is also challenging to understand the professional values and ethical responsibilities concerning people and the future of mankind. Finally, it is impossible to manage the outcomes of human cloning without factoring in the values to nursing profession. From this hypothesis, human cloning should not be allowed to advance merely for the reason that, it has significant number of ethical, social and medical related implications. References Campbell, K.H.S, McWhir J, Ritchie W. A, Wilmut I. (1996). Sheep Cloned by Nuclear TransferFrom a Cultured Cell Line. Nature 380: 64–66. Cibelli, J.B, Stice, S.L, Golueke P.J et al. (1998). Cloned Transgenic Calves Produced from Nonquiescent Fetal Fibroblasts. Science; 280: 1256– 58. Wakayama, T, Perry. A.C.F, Zuccotti M, Johnson. K.R, Yanagimachi R. (1998). Full-term Development of Mice from Enucleated oocytes Injected with Cumulus Cell Nuclei. Nature; 394: 369–73. Polejaeva, I.A, Chen S.H, Vaught, T.D et al. (2000). 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