Wealth and Geopolitics of Sediments - Report Example

Wealth and Geopolitics of Sediments: China Coal Wealth and Geopolitics of Sediments: China Coal Introduction The People’s Republic of China is currently one of the largest producers and users of coal in the world with proven reserves of about 52 billion tons of lignite and 62 Billion tons of anthracite quality coal. Although China’s proven reserves are currently ranked fourth behind the United States, Russia and India, the country has been known to produce more coal that any other country across the globe. Recent estimates indicate that China has enough coal deposits to effectively sustain its future economic growth for up to a century though the current demand is increasingly outpacing production (Rui, 2005). Most of the reserves of China coal sediment deposits are located towards the north and north western parts of the country. For example, Shanxi Province in the Northern China has the most quality and easily accessible coal. China coal is not only geographically widespread but the mineral also occurs in nearly every stratigraphic interval since the Devonian period. Despite the lack of authentic records, the mining and use of coal in China is widely believed to date back as far as 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic era. The Ancient Chinese particularly the people who lived in the present day Shanxi province may have used coal as a source heat for metal smelting as well as other domestic purposes. According to Elspeth (2009), the Chinese coal sediments were primarily accumulated thousands of years ago as a result of geological processes. The formation time is broadly categorized into four main coal formation periods of Carbonherons-Permian, Jurassic period, Tertiary and Cretareruns periods. Carbonherons-Permian coal is particularly found in the Yangtze region and the contemporary Sino-Korean Mocks. One of the major potential explanations for the regional distribution of coal is based on the tectno-geographic setting so the basins and the paleo-climatic conditions of the time during their formation. Lastly, with regard to the geopolitical implications of China coal, it is widely believed that the continued mining and use of coal power in China may significantly result in increased carbon emissions and consequently undermine international initiatives designed to decrease Carbon emissions such as the Kyoto protocol. This paper critically explores the formation of the China Coal deposits, the geopolitics of its past and present utilization as well as the potential environmental impacts. Fig 1: Production of Coal in China from 1950-2012 Paleogeography and Depositional Processes of China Coal Sediments Coal is a combustible form of brownish black sedimentary organic rock that is primarily composed of hydrocarbons and other components such as moisture, oxygen and sulphur (Speight, 2011). Coal sediments normally occur on rock strata in layers known as coal beds and are widely believed to have been formed when the dead plant and organic materials were converted into peat, lignite and anthracite due to various biological and geological processes that took place over a period of thousands of years. This particularly took place during the Carboniferous period which is thought to have begun around 285 million years ago and lasted for more than 75 million years. The actual formation and distribution of coal deposits in China is believed to have been controlled by a number of geological factors. Many experts concur that during certain times in the earth’s geological past, the world was full of dense forests particularly in the low lying wetland areas. However, these forests were soon buried deep under the soil due to natural processes such as flooding. They were subsequently compressed as more soil continued to be deposited over them. The fossilization is most likely to have occurred in the lowland areas, basins and other water logged habitats such as river deltas. Under immense temperature and high pressure, the dead vegetation that is deep buried in the sediments may have been compressed and converted into coal in a process known as carbonization. It is widely believed that the shallow seas that existed in the carboniferous period may have particularly provided ideal natural conditions for coal formation. Fig 2: Depositional Conditions and Stratigraphy of China Coal The late Palaeozoic period is widely distributed in Eastern China. The stratgraphic position of the main China coal sediments in the palaezoic period varied significantly from one area to another. The migration of the Mesozoic coal was particularly in a reverse direction relative to the Palaeozoic period. However, between the late Triassic periods to the early Cretaceous period, stratigraphic positions of the china coal sediments gradually moved from south to North under syndepositional activities due to tectonic movements. On the other hand, the Jurassic coal deposits have mostly been found in the continental basins particularly in the north of Kimain-Quinting orogneic regions as well as in the Jurassic basins such as Janggar and Ordos basins. Cretaceous coals are mainly found in the deposits situated in the basins of North-East China (Cleal, 2009). Generally, the tectonic systems that may have contributed to the formation of the Chinese coal are widely believed to include linear shear structures, latitudinal structures, meridional structures and epsilon-type structures. These systems particularly controlled the sedimentation of the coal bearing seams in the Eastern China. On the other hand, from the late carboniferous period and throughout the Permian period, coal accumulation gradually migrated from north (high latitudes) towards south (low latitudes). China coal sediments were formed in different environments such as seashore basins, river deltas among others and sedimentary environments during the Carboniferous period was one of the key controls for the formation of coal. For example, some sedimentary environments such as palaeogeography and swampy water logged environments played a significantly key role in the formation and accumulation of coal sediments during the Carboniferous period. With regard to the distribution of coal in China, Shanxi Province in the Northern China has the most quality and easily accessible coal. However, coal sediments from the southern mines parts of the country tend to contain significant amounts of ash and sulfur and are therefore not often suitable for many applications. Some of the major coal basins with potential abundant coal deposits include Ordos, Yingqiong, Sichuan, Tarim and East China Sea deposits. Geopolitics of the Past and Present Utilization of Coal in China Throughout the history, coal sediments have always served humanity as an important source of energy both for industrial and domestic purposes. The coal mining industry in China dates back to many centuries during which the coal mineral deposits were primarily used for smelting of metals and alloy production. Towards the end of the 19th century, coal mining and use increasingly become an important political issue. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the country adopted soviet style coal energy management and coal soon became a dominant energy source for the Chinese economic growth. Due to its abundance and relative low cost compared to other energy sources, coal played a critical role as major sources of energy for the Chinese industries during the country’s transition from socialism to capitalism, shift to a market oriented economy and rise of rural industries. Another important political ramification of the rise of the Chinese coal mining was that coal quickly became a major source of wealth particularly for the Central government and a feew other Chinese business men. This is particularly seen in increasing prosperity that was witnessed in Chinese small rural coal mines with the rise of small manufacturing enterprises. However, the dual process of accumulation of immense wealth by the Chinese state and the systematic low wages to the workers significantly hampered the development of China’s domestic consumer base. It is also worth noting that most of the manufacturing industries before the transition to from socialism to capitalism were all under the tight control of the central government and were mainly located on the coastal regions. Coal mining also resulted in a number of social and environmental problems. For example, the deteriorating working conditions of the coal miners became a major political issue both under socialism and after the transition to capitalism. Lastly, the resultant labor migration from the inland rural areas of China caused a number of internal political issues and the problem was only solved after the government began enhancing inland industries from the early 1990s. The investment and industrial development in the inland areas such as along the Yangtze River was a product of complex political and economic forces that played out during the 1990s. For example, the growing China rural industrialization was a result of the shifting of the Chinese government policy from the initial focus on the coastal manufacturing industries towards the integration of Chinas diverse economic regions into a single national economy. On the other hand, the financial crisis of 2008 also resulted in a sudden evaporation of the Chinese export oriented industry thereby leading to a general shift towards the internal markets and the development of the inland industries. Currently, coal has continued to play an important of role in the Geopolitics of China with regard to the country’s domestic and foreign agendas. Many recent energy consumption estimates indicate that coal is presently the largest source of energy after oil and is considered to be the most abundant fossil not only in China but also in the rest parts of the world (Sagawa, 2007). In China, coal is one of the main energy sources and most of the consumption of coal is largely attributed to electricity production with a relatively small percentage going to domestic use. The consumption of coal in China is primarily in power production for use particularly in the rapidly growing Chinese manufacturing industries. There is however, a comparatively small amount of coal consumption going attributed to domestic use. According to many researchers, the continued use of coal in China as a major source of industrial energy is largely attributed to the country’s expansive coal sediment deposits as well as the ease of transportation and cost effectiveness of coal as an industrial energy source. This is particularly evidenced by China’s its growth as an industrial manufacturing economy and rapid development into the world’s second largest economy as well as its rise as a global superpower. Although the use of coal as the primary energy source has increasingly been replaced by alternative or emerging energy sources such as oil, nuclear plants, hydro-electricity and gas in many parts of the world due to growing environmental concerns, China has continued to rely on coal as one of its major source of industrial energy. With the country’s huge deposits of Coal and other energy sources to supply its industries with cheap power, Chinas rise to superpower status is currently very likely. This is largely attributed to the industries producing cheap consumer good s for export. Energy driven geopolitical considerations are increasingly becoming a common aspect in the national security policies of many countries of the world. For example, the current consumption is estimated to be over 3.2 billion metric tones annually and this is higher than any other country in the world. With the country’s huge deposits of Coal and other energy sources to supply its industries with cheap power, Chinas rise to superpower status is currently very likely. This is largely attributed to the industries producing cheap consumer good s for export. Most of the Chinese consumption of coal is largely attributed to electricity production for industrial use with a relatively small percentage going to domestic use. With regard to the energy geopolitics of the 21st century, the rapid growth of China into an emerging superpower within the last few decades has been largely based on the country’s dependence on its coal resources to drive its manufacturing industries. It is from this industrial growth due to abundant coal resources that China has been able to achieve its economic power and derive its current geopolitical influence. Despite its immense potential economic benefits, the use of coal has created one of the major contentious political issues with regard to its environmental impacts especially through carbon emissions. However, as food shortages and floods continue to ravage the planet due to destruction of the environment and the resultant climate change, a climate war may be a likely future possibility. For example, disputes over pollutions may easily trigger diplomatic tensions and possibly even result in militarized responses. This is particularly because Energy geopolitics such as in the case of China coal is now increasingly being driven by emerging energy and environmental concerns. The Future Geopolitics of China Coal China is already burning more coal than the rest of the entire world combined but the current consumption levels are expected to rise in the near future by up to 60%. Despite the growing international concerns over the use of coal energy and the Chinese government’s plans to limit coal consumption due to its serious environmental impacts, it is widely expected that Chinas coal use is set to rise sharply towards the end of this decade. China’s domestic and industrial consumption of coal reached 3.2 billion tones per a year in 2010 and the rising investment in the coal industry is expected to increase the annual consumption by up to 50%. According to China National Coal Association (CNCA, 2012), the Chinese demand and consumption of the highly polluting energy source will hit 4.8 Billion tones by the year 2020. This will make a 36% increase over the current consumption levels. The projected increase in coal consumption is largely attributed to the fact that the fundamental conditions that gave rise to the increasing need of coal energy in the last few decades still exist. For example, the rising petroleum fuel prices is not going to end any time soon and emerging economies like China are likely to look into alternative sources of energy to support their rapid industrial growth. On the other hand, resource politics are already playing out particularly through climatic negotiations among the world’s powers. As a result, China’s aggressive economic and industrial policies are likely to play out in the geopolitical agenda in the near future due to the evolving political economy of resources. Additionally, the fast expanding resource sectors such as the coal industry in China are set to become major flashpoints for both the domestic and international socio-political tension. For example, just like in the past, the deteriorating working conditions of the coal miners may soon become a major political issue if the current conditions are not improved (Ruiling, 2006). At the same time, other experts have also warned that the current trends in the mining and consumption of coal power in China may significantly result in increased carbon emissions and consequently undermine international initiatives designed to decrease Carbon emissions such as the Kyoto protocol. The Chinese industries mainly generate their wealth by exporting cheap consumer goods to many countries of the world. However, the increasing toll of this economic strategy has always been high. Despite the potential benefits of coal such as its abundance and being a cheap source of energy, the current debates regarding the consumption of coal are primarily directed towards its potential environmental impacts particularly in light of the ongoing efforts to tackle global climatic change by reducing carbon gas emissions. For example, the Chinese carbon emissions are currently higher the emissions of all the other nations of the world combined. According to many experts, the current enormity of Chinas growing coal use has already chocked most of the Chinese cities with smog and any slight increase could result in long term environmental pollution. While some existing and emerging technologies have helped to address some of the environmental concerns of coal use such as safety, land degradation and mercury or sulphur emissions, the challenge of carbon emissions remain one of the biggest political issues related to the future coal use. Generally, all these factors have important geopolitical impacts on the long term global security. Conclusion In conclusion, although the current demand is increasingly outpacing production, China has enough coal sediment deposits to effectively sustain its future economic growth for up to a century. Most of the China coal sediments were formed in different environments such as seashore basins, river deltas among others and sedimentary environments during the Carboniferous period was one of the key controls for the formation of coal. Generally, coal has continued to play an important of role in the Geopolitics of China with regard to the country’s domestic and foreign agendas. For example, disputes arising over pollutions may easily trigger diplomatic tensions and possibly even result in militarized responses in the future. References China National Coal Association. (2013). China Coal Market Analysis and Forecast. CNCA Statistics report. This is a critical analysis and prediction of the Chinese coal industry based on the current domestic costs and import policies. Chinese Institute of Geology and Mineral Resources. (2002). Energy Mineral Resources Maps of China and Adjacent Seas. Beijing: Geological Publishing House. This is an informative publication containing interactive maps and information on the mineral deposits and the regional geology. The compilation also contains surveys and assessments of the mineral resources of the neighboring countries bordering China. Cleal, C. (2009). An Introduction to Plant Fossils and Coal Measures. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Written by Christopher Cleal, a reknowned vegetations history professor, the book offers a practical introduction to the scientific study of plant fossils including the ancient coal formation processes. Dorian, P. 2004. Minerals, Energy, and Economic Development in China. New York: Clarendon Press. A comprehensive source of information on China coal mining including a detailed analysis of the industry. The book particularly focuses to its role in the Chinese industrialization process. Elspeth, Thomson. 2009. The Chinese Coal Industry: An Economic History. New York: Rutledge. This is a valuable reading highlighting important aspects of the Chinese economy as well as the political insights of its reliance of coal as a primary energy source. Rui, Huaichuan. (2005). Globalization, Transition and Development in China: the Case of the Coal Industry. Beijing: Routledge. The article critically examines the development of the Chinese coal industry including its geopolitical impacts as well as the emerging challenges. Sagawa, Atsuo. (2007). Present State and Outlook of China’s Coal Industry. Tokyo: Institute of Energy Economics. This is a comprehensive report that covers the today’s Chinese coal supply and demand as well as the current coal utilization technology. Ruiling, Li. (2006). Coal-Bearing Regions and Structural Sedimentary Basins of China. Beijing: Surveying and Mapping Institute of Jilin Province Publishing House. The publication provides geologists with the much needed statial information regarding the coal desposits in China. U.S. Geological Survey. (2001) World coal Quality inventory. China Coal Sediments This fact sheet provides an overview of the coal resource distribution as well as the quality of the coal resources in different regions. APPENDIX A: Geological Maps of China Coal Resource Distribution Distribution of China Coal Sediment Resources (Source: China National Coal Association, 2012). Read More