Suicide Bombings: Crimes against Humanity - Term Paper Example

Suicide Bombings: Crimes Against Humanity Introduction Global terrorism which has resulted into universal humanitarian crises and international humanitarian response has formed global center stage. The multiplication of terrorism attacks has re-ignited global mass retaliation against the perpetrators and the sponsoring agencies and bodies.1 One form of terrorism attack approach that have since caused a dramatic shift towards the formulation of counter measures is suicide bombing. Suicide bombing has proved one of the most effective ways used by terrorists who choice to act violently with acclaim of defending their ideologies and pursuing their own political agenda. 2 In the modern times, suicide terrorism represents a major threat to both the domestic and international peace. It is the highly rated disruption in our time to international order and humanitarian operations and actions. As such suicide bombings from an international law perspective can be considered crimes against humanity. Reflecting on the evolutionary stages of terrorism, particular the epidemic of suicide bombing, its consequence and its associated promoters, this paper seeks to ascertain that suicide bombing is indeed crime against humanity. It underscores the motivation behind suicide bombing as well as counter measures to minimize crime against humanity in Iraq. It also highlights failure by United Nation Security council to minimize suicide terrorism especially in Iraq. Further the paper presents a recommendation on how the citizens can be protected against suicide bombings as well as the consequences of terrorism and its counter measures. Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court of July 17th 1998 as quoted by Schabas, defined Crime against humanity as any law violation against humanity perpetrated through acts such murder, extermination, extradition, subjugation or any inhumane acts which are committed against any regular citizen populace, before or amid the war, or abuse of power on political, racial or religious grounds in execution of or regarding any wrongdoing inside the ward of the Tribunal, regardless of whether the act disregarded the local law.3 The law which was enacted to provide safety havens globally against various threats that subjected the humanitarian space to threats and could lead to loss of lives. Regardless the existence of the law, crimes against humanity and the humanitarian crisis has marked the oscillatory tone of global balance. Terrorism, in its diverse forms have become a major global threat for the international peace and cooperation and so a lot of resources have been deployed to fight against it to ensure safety of civilians. Differently put as Bloom would term it, international terrorism has become in ‘the modern day a scourge’ to all democratic and less democratic nations.4 Many incidences of terrorism have been witnessed in various parts of the world say in Iraq, in U.S. - the famous 9/11 incidences etc. But the striking question when talking about international terrorism is; why is terrorism thriving despite the global pressure to subdue it and the new technology of military across the globe? Who are the terrorist anyway? According to Schabas terrorism can be defined as the debilitated or real utilization of illicit drive and brutality by a non-state performer to accomplish a political, economic, religious or social objective by use of dread, compulsion or intimidation.5 In the contemporary society, suicidal bombing has gained domination and many extremist organizations have resorted to the use of suicide bombing to achieve their ends. Many attacks across the globe has been perpetrated by suicide bombers who are committed to die to accomplish a mission.6 Suicide bombing has proven for the militants to be a good method of causing maximum damage and fear since the bombers rely heavily on the element of surprise in order to act.7 This explains why suicidal bombing has gained its kinetic domination and populace among the extremist groups and groupings. Suicide bombers attain the craved surprise by wearing their explosive vests under their clothing so that they cannot be realized. Modern suicidal bombing can be traced to the radical 19th century anarchists or the so called dynamiters who propagated a doctrine of action and deeds. Notably, however, some dynamiters decided to use their weapons which were initially meant to be used against monarch and other political leaders against themselves.8 They killed themselves in the process of accomplishing their end objective. The suicide bombers act within the framework of the end justifying the means philosophy and so walking in the shadows of dynamiters,9 the modern suicide bomber have been born. Notably, the contemporary suicide bombings came said to have begun in Lebanon in 1981 when the Shi’ite Islamic militants-Hezbollah claimed to have military forces withdrawn from Lebanon and since then suicide bombing has gained global notoriety.10 Historically, scholars have observed that suicide terrorism in all its forms have been employed as strategic weapon for terrorist for many years and it has gained global domination as a way used by extremist group to accomplish an end. It has as such attractive modus operandi to extremist group for several reasons which include: First according to Cook and Allison, media coverage fuels the use of suicide bombers since such suicidal acts gain publicity which is indeed the glory of the terrorists.11 News organization offers a lot of valuable airtime to cover suicide bombing incidences and so escalate the willingness of the bombers to crave for such death which indiscriminately kills numerous people in the process.12 Further, due to the grim effect of the brutality, media coverage is planned and projected to have such a great impact on the unsuspecting crowd. Moreover, the stunning nature of the assault is part of the figuring.13 Thus media coverage passes on an image of extremely high discipline, dedication and skillful approach on behalf of the terrorists in completing that kind of bold and more of inconceivable acts.14 Secondly, as mentioned earlier the suicide bombers use themselves as the means to carry out the attack by wearing their bomb under their clothing and so they create a difficult situation for the law enforcers to stop them in time. Having committed to die and kill others in the process, these suicide bombers are not easy to stop and are not easily identifiable leaving only the aftermath to be dealt with by the surviving general public and governments.15 Lastly, suicide bombing is on the thriving end because of its successful execution of bombing with little expertise and considerably little resources required.16 In other words, for a suicide bombing, one requires only a bomb and the person willing to carry it to the designated regions. As such suicide bombing is cost-effective for terror groups rather than hostage taking which would demand adequate training and preparation as well as financial costs.17 In its execution no plans for an escape route is needed which is one of the complex and complicated part in planning such kind of attacks if they were to involve escaping the scene after recognition or arrest.18 Moreover, the availability of instruction manuals for the bomb construction, training videos and other material to the public domain have also offered the bombers and terrorists a considerable guidance and assistance to plan and execute their attacks.19 Needless to say the heavy casualties resulting from suicide terrorism-suicide bombing has become a brutal and the most strategic weapon used by the weak against the strong and well prepared.20 Underscoring the utility of the weapon of attack, Dr. Ramadan Shalah, the then secretary –general of the Palestinian Islamic Jihad acknowledge that unlike their enemies who possess the most sophisticated weaponry with high standards of training, martyrdom became their effective weapon. To him human weapon is not easy to defeat and is quite cost effective and easy to work with.21 Why Mass Murder: Motivation behind Suicide Bombing. Arguably, the bad blood between the Islam and Western civilization have been blamed as the cause of constant waves of suicide bombings.22 Though some scholars have argued against this by stating that suicide bombing as such have not resulted from such incompatibility of these two civilizations, one fact remains that it has contributed in creating anti-Western hysteria in the Muslim world as well anti-Muslim and discrimination in the Western democracies.23 Subsequently, the created hysteria atmosphere between the Westernized civilizations against the Islamic civilization has created a vulnerable atmosphere for attacks and retaliatory attacks. What is actually the motivation behind suicide bombing? Studies have brushed aside the conventional belief that suicide bombers are insane lot of people or that suicide bombers are but a bunch of religious fanatics. According to Crenshaw suicide bombers have shown no indication of metal disorder as they go into the act of blowing themselves up in a company of numerous unsuspecting bystanders, and most of the suicide bombing incidences are generally politically motivated.24 In most cases such political motivations are geared towards attaining a certain specific agenda which can be to force concessions or generate a great support and following.25 Reflecting on the previous studies database of suicide bombings mostly in Iraq, Palestine-Israeli regions, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, Schabas asserted that politics play a key role in fueling suicide bombing across the globe more than religious fundamentalism and fanaticism.26 Historically recorded incidences have defied the normal assumption that individual’s personality or their religion is to blame for the suicide bombing. However, we cannot discredit and absolve religion completely from blame or for playing a role in the process of formation of suicide bombers. Religion, as noted by Schabas plays a central role in enrolling as well as arousing potential prospective suicide bombers. As such the compelling thrust does not come from religion but more from a mixed drink of inspirations including political issues, humiliation, requital or sense to revenge retaliation and altruism/unselfishness.27 In retrospect, a good example of revenge instigated suicide bombing the case of Hanadi Jaradat- a 29 years old Palestinian legal counselor, who in October 4, 2003, blasted her suicide sash in the Maxim restaurant in Haifa killing approximately 20 individuals and injuring numerous others more.28 Later, it was reported by her family that her suicide mission was indeed in vengeance for the execution of her sibling and her life partner by the Israeli security personnel. Again the suicide mission was in requital for all the wrongdoings Israel had executed in the operation at West Bank of slaughtering the Palestinians and dispossessing their natural resources.29 Studies have indicated that contrary to popular ideology that majority of suicide bombers commit to suicide mission in exchange of good sum of money to their families, no evidence have since been set to determine economic variables as linked to the suicidal missions.30 Moreover, some of the people who commit to undertake such missions are from well of families and are having well-paying jobs.31 That is to say a number of suicide bombers are not disturbed or wild-looked at aficionados with barely anything to live for but well established people. This point to the same conclusion that may of the suicide bombers are steered with the impulsive mix of desperation, pride, anger, desire for revenge and a sense of powerlessness.32 Crenshaw did observe that proper understanding of the terrorist organizational structure and their association’s rationale is of greater importance and critical in understanding the motivating will behind suicide bombers than mere comprehension of a single inspiration in clarifying suicide assaults.33 Notably, suicide bombings are highly regarded and have high typical worth in light of the fact that the eagerness of the suicide bombers to bite the dust flags high resolve and devotion to their cause.34 From this perspective, the perpetrators and sympathizers of terrorism consider suicide bombing as a weapon of the weak against the powerful in asymmetric conflict. This view justifies suicide bombing as having a just cause to fight for the freedom, self-determination and ultimate peace of the weak.35 Some scholars who advocate for this school of thought point to the tenacity, endurance of terrorist(suicide bombers) who despite their limited resources ( both the personnel and material) still have the ability and determination to cause fear among unsuspecting civilians and military of unexpected attack, as a simple proof of the justness and validity of the cause.36 According to Hieronymi suicide bombing is considered an image of a just struggle that somehow galvanizes prominent backing, aid produce budgetary backing for the association and so it becomes a recruitment agency for newcomers who are prepared for future suicide missions.37 Further suicide bombing serves the diversion of the supporting association in two main ways, namely to constrain a foe or adversary to make concessions as well as giving the sponsoring association a leeway over its adversaries as far as backing from the supporters.38 Notably, in spite of the prevalent picture that suicide bombing or suicide terrorism is a result of unreasonable religious zeal, suicide besieging assaults are unflinchingly political-roused marvels.39 Interestingly, some scholars have also noted with concern that the significance and nature of suicide in a suicide bombing are strikingly unique in relation to standard forms of suicide. Suicide bombing can be classified as selfless self-destructive activity that involve esteeming ones’ life as less commendable than that of the association’s honor, religion or some aggregate interest.40 Hafez further pointed out the religiously and nationalistically coded disposition towards acknowledgement of death, originating from the long stretches of aggregate enduring; mortification and frailty empower political associations to resort to suicide bombings as an appropriate way for their kin’s sentiments of distress, hardships, antagonistic vibe and unfairness.41 Moreover, for suicide bombers to take interest in suicidal missions is not only about passing on and executing some innocent individuals in the process alone, it has a more extensive essentialness as it will accomplish many different end ranging from personal to communal.42 These incorporates picking up group support and approval as well as political achievement, freeing ones homeland or country; accomplish personal reclamation and honor, utilizing ones afflictions to ensure the survival of one’s community or group; declining to acknowledge oppression but seek to look forward for vengeance for both the individual and aggregate embarrassment and humiliation.43 Some studies have also associated the suicidal bombing to religious motivations. Some scholars have argued that since suicide bombing is more closely knitted with Islamic religion, many people are motivated to seek martyrdom through blowing themselves up taking with them numerous scores of unsuspecting population with them.44 According to the author Muslim faith demands the adherents to make sacrifices, many of the suicide bombers sacrifice their lives for the sake of Allah.45 As noted earlier, religion can be considered not a sole motivator to suicide bombing, nevertheless, it provide safe haven for extremists to espouse religion as a means of justification and persuasion. The extremist’s leaders use religion to justify their indiscriminate killings as well as overcome the natural aversion that accompanies one against taking one’s own life. In this way suicide bombing is viewed as a sacred duty and obligation of offering sacrifice rather than a social or religious aberration.46 Militant Islam This is a term used to refer to a portion of the Islamic fanatics who seek to gain control of governments and are considerably aggressive towards this end and thus eliminate any force against its way regardless of religious faith or affiliations.47 In the modern times, militant Islam though representing a minority view of people has been is perceived as extremely religious extremists that have posed a real global threat. Historically, the modern international terrorism traces its originality as from1968-1979, during the post-colonial era in Arab and Islamic world. The attempt to form a state after the colonialist had failed, under such the creation of Isreal led to a series of Marxist and anti-Western transformations and movements.48 The birth of these nationalists and revolutionaries harbored the idea that these movements could attain their political goals through terrorism.49 Though most of the movements were secular at the time, they formed a model for numerous other secular movements and subsequently they offered lessons and training for ethnic and religious movements that emerged. The year 1979 was s defining moment in the global terrorism. All through the Arab world and the West, the Iranian Islamic revolution started reasons for fears of a wave of revolutionary Shia Islam.50 At the time, the Soviet intrusion into Afghanistan and the resulting hostility towards Soviet mujahedeen war, invigorated the ascent and extension of terrorism gathering and regrouping.51 Without slightest of a doubt, the development of a post-jihad pool of decently prepared, battle-hardened militants, did form foundation of the contemporary universal terrorism and the uprising related brutality. The disintegration of post-Cold War Arabic and Islamic states together with the global advancement in conventional weaponry and technical know-how, accelerated the proliferation of terrorism globally.52 The created vacuums of stability owing to the constant conflicts and absence of proper governance, presented prime training grounds and recruitment points for terrorists. These gave birth to a new phase of militant Islamic terrorism.53 With favorable political climate in the unstable states, many religiously motivated Islamic terror groups emerged. At the time, Osama Bin Laden founded Al- Qaeda (which literally meant ‘The Base’) with a pre-established goal of reestablishing the Muslim State throughout the world.54 To attain this end, Osama resorted to overthrow corrupt regimes in the Islamic world as well as facilitate the removal of any foreign presence from the Islamic world. It is said that, Bin Laden supported three ant U.S. fatwas in which he encouraged the Muslim community to fight against the American imperialism55. It is noteworthy that the militant Islam can be categorized into two groups, namely: Political militant Islam which hold a world view that they can manage, and integrate innovation while Fundamentalist militant Islam which holds a comeback to an ontological manifestation of Islam that rejects advancement and innovations. Al Qaeda, is a good example of Fundamentalist militant Islam.56 Consequences of Terrorism According to researchers, the number of casualties and destruction level alone do not measure up to the amount of consequences that tail terrorism, particularly suicide bombing. The modern form of terrorism-which include suicide bombing is considered the greatest security threat of our time.57 Many societies global are faced with the challenge of endemic suicide terrorism attack on their very soil and as a consequence a lot of funds and time have been dedicated for defense against a ‘faceless’ suicide bomber. Indeed fighting a faceless person or group of person is much more expensive both in monetary terms and time since security agents are working with projections, loopholes. And this makes suicide bombing one of the most effective attach weapon used by terror groups- since it is when the security agents do not suspect a thing , it is when they strike.58 The consequences of terrorism as such should be viewed from various perspective just to realize the enormous impact that it has, namely psychological, political, economic, social effects of suicide terrorism. i. Psychological consequences of suicide terrorism It is worth noting that suicide bombing/terrorism is more a psychological warfare aimed at creating a sense of threat and panic among individuals of a targeted society.59 Psychological effects can either be directly inflicted through the death of loved ones or family members in the attack or indirectly through media exposure- the sea in which terrorism sails. Suicide bombing creates an aura of fanaticism especially for the attackers end projecting a likely possibility of future attacks and this causes fear and restlessness among people. Residents of Iraq where suicide attack has pitched camps for many years, living under the blanket of fear of violent death is considered part of the dailies and so the locals are always fearful for their lives.60 Some people suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which affects how people behave and how they socialize i.e. some people will tend to shy away from people and places which reminds them of the traumatic experience(s).61 Some individual suffer from depression which leads them to drug use and substance abuse. Moreover, some individuals suffer from social psychological effect of suicide terrorism, for instance people become xenophobic and stereotypic against a certain particular group of individuals. Since most of the terrorist attacks across the globe have been caused and not all by Muslim militants, there have since risen a global assumption that Muslim community be looked at suspiciously.62 ii. Economic consequences of suicide terrorism Directly, suicide terrorism causes physical damages to property-infrastructure- and loss of lives. A lot of property is lost during an attack especially those targeted as buildings for instance the World Trade Center.63 In such kind of attacks there is a lot of financial cost that are a lost both in the building as well as the products in it. Again the driving force of economy, the workforce also dies in such attacks. Furthermore, though indirectly, suicide terrorism weakens a state economy which subsequently increases risk in the economy.64 It leads to enormous decline of foreign investment owing to the uncertainty that hovers constantly. The number of foreign investors in Iraq especially in the current constant fear of attack has greatly reduced, and so the country’s GDP is greatly affected.65 iii. Social consequences of suicide terrorism Following constant attacks, suicide terrorism have great impact on the social aspect of society. It causes an increase in ethnocentrism and a sense of xenophobia as a particular group increase its solidarity in the face of terrorist’s violence.66 The results would the “ identification with, and support for, the in-group rises as a result of terrorism, while identification with, and support for, any out-group decrease” as seen in the case of United States’ aftermath of 9/11 when there was a strong upsurge of patriotic sentiments and solidarity against global terrorism.67 While a state may experience a renewed sense of solidarity in the sweeping wave of terrorism, the Islamic nationals or the Muslims have been increasingly perceived as potential security threats. Muslims living in the United States have since expressed complaints about the attitude of intolerance, harassment and discrimination especially in the aftermath of 9/11 terrorist attacks.68 Comparatively, similar hostility and intolerance were expressed by Arabs living in Israel during the send Intifada. It must however e noted that the hostility towards the Arabs in Israel actually predates the Palestinian attack, but the attack did intensify the discrimination.69 Moreover, burrowing from a survey done in 2003, Sprinzak observed that 57 percent of Israeli Jews expressed their support for the government to emigrate Arab nationals from Isreal, while 33 percent expressed preference for their complete expulsion.70 iv. Political consequences of Suicide terrorism While it may not be clear cut to pin-point and pronounce political consequences of terrorism, it is evident enough that constant waves of suicide terrorism weaken the political arrangement of a state. As such suicide terrorism can lead to gradual destabilization of an entire country, for instance Pakistan. Terror groups weaken the very fabric of political governing bodies and so bar the development of other sectors. Moreover, suicide terrorism have invaded the humanitarian space and have led to the constantly ballooning of migrants into neighboring countries as well as the growing asylum fatigue. Both legal and illegal migrants are clear evidence of the people whose humanitarian space have been adversely affected.71 Under such it has created a multi-faceted reaction from the US and the rest of the world against terrorism and its promoters. Following the 9/11 incidence the spirit of retaliation have re-emerged and the global attention is towards fighting and winning the war from the terror organizations.72 UN failure in Iraq Iraq has been on the United Nations Security Council’s (UNSC) agenda for more than three decades. Contrary to the President Bush’s National Security Strategy of 2002 which advocated for pre-emptive use of force, UNSC adopted Resolution 1441. Resolution 1441 labeled Iraq to be in material breach of its disarmament obligation and granted it a final opportunity to comply. However, the resolution failed to stipulate some necessity that ought to have held Iraq accountable in the event it failed to comply. The resolution lacked what would constitute failure to comply by Iraq or who was to decide etc. As a consequent UN failed to contain Iraq and at the same time it failed to contain US who decided to sideline UN for its failure to bring the situation under control. Failure of UN was a clear seen an international body which was insufficient to respond to the needs of the day. The failure was clearly manifested when in 2003 UN suffered the greatest loss of its civilian employees in history when a truck-bomb was detonated outside UN headquarters in Baghdad.73 Recommendation Reflecting on the then Secretary General of UN - Kofi Anna, Schabas pointed recommended a worldwide push to battle terrorism. He pointed out to an exertion uniting various governments, the United Nations and other global associations and common societies each to play its independent front towards the same goal-to uproot terrorism.74 Moreover, it would be appropriate for each government to dissuade and thwart intentions of individuals from falling back to terrorism or who support it through any means. Again as counter measure, law enforcers should also streamline the domestic counterterrorism venture through enhancing the available capacities, making use of state and local law enforcement authorization assets and powers. In conclusion, in the contemporary society, terrorism and particularly, suicide bombing has become a center stage in the international political debates. Suicide bombing, is considered the most effective approach of attack used by the weak against the strong to make a specific goal. Studies have shown that suicide terrorism are more politically motivated than religiously instigated. However, religion-Islam – have been blamed as offering terrorist a safe haven and suitable excuse for their actions. Reviewing the impact of terrorism on the global scale, it is fitting to mark it as crime against humanity. Bibliography "Al-Qaeda." Wikipedia. Accessed February 3, 2015. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Qaeda. Barnett, Michael N. “Empire of Humanity: A History of Humanitarianism.” Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2011. Crenshaw, Martha. “The Consequences of Counterterrorism.” New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2010. Forsythe, David. "The ICRC and the US “war” against terrorism." In The humanitarians, by David Forsythe, 129-153. Cambridge University Press, 2005. Goldhagen, Daniel Jonah. Worse than War: Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on Humanity. New York: PublicAffairs, 2009. Hafez, Mohammed M. "SuicideBombers in Historical and Theoritical Perspective." In Suicide Bombers in Iraq, by Mohammed M Hafez, 3. US Institute of Peace Press, 2007. Hieronymi, Otto. "Suicide Bombings and the Issue of Humanitarian Space." Lecture, Webster Humanitarian Conference, Geneva. Schabas, William. An Introduction to the International Criminal Court. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Sharpe, Mary. "Islamic Jihad in Iraq: Suicide or Martyrdom." In Suicide Bombers the Psychological, Religious and Other Imperatives. Amsterdam, Netherlands: IOS Press, 2008. Sprinzak, Ehud "Rational Fanatics," Foreign Policy 120 (September/October 2000): 66-74. Stadler, Nurit. "Terror, Corpse Symbolism, and Taboo Violation: The Haredi Disaster Victim Identification Team in Israel (Zaka)./Terreur, Symbolique Des Corps Et Violation Des Tabous : Lequipe Haredi Didentification Des Victimes De Catastrophes En Israel (Zaka)." Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, December 1, 2003. Read More