Effects of Illicit Drugs among Indigenous Australians - Report Example

Use of Illicit Drugs by indigenous Australians Harm minimization For more than twenty years Australia has been using this approach especially among strict addicts (Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet, 2001-2010). This method weighs the overall harms that occur during drug use instead of just considering actual harm of the drug. It encourages change in attitude from considering addicts as hopeless towards acceptance that they need help. By asking society to look at the whole picture, that is, the drug user, his circumstances and environment it is easier to find ways that are particularly helpful to the drug users. Focus on other factors that contribute to drug use may be the key to assisting drug users lose dependency on the drugs. Key areas that collaborate with harm minimization are law enforcement and justice systems, social structures and public health (Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet, 2001-2010). One of the services being offered to indigenous dependent on drugs is sterile syringes. This serves to reduce blood-borne infections. The programs focus on creating awareness among the indigenous as to options to reduce harm in their lives. Through the program more indigenous people are assisted to avoid drugs, reduce or end their use, and to use safer ways while they are using drugs (Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet, 2001-2010). Policing has also been used to offer ways in which cannabis use can be reduced. Diversion programs have also been used to channel minor users of cannabis use to treatment and drug education. Peer Pressure. Peer pressure has been cited as a huge influence on decision to take drugs (Thomson, 2008). Family pressure seems to heighten peer pressure. Peer pressure is most noted in teenagers and young adults but can also be linked to older people who find themselves in difficult family situations. This is especially true in regards to smoking and beer drinking by men Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet. (2001-2010). History of illicit drug use by the indigenous of Australia. Alcohol though licit is one of the most used psychoactive substances in Australia followed by tobacco (Phillips 2003, p. 20). Alcohol is especially used in remote areas. According to Australian Bureau of Statistic on public health, alcohol abuse among indigenous is a major problem (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1995). However there does not seem to have been much abuse of alcohol in traditional indigenous society (Phillips 2003, p. 20) Before the Australia constitution was formed in 1901, there was minimal policy on use of illicit drugs. Opium was the common drug in use though without government regulation. The only intervention from the government was in the form of advisory to avoid overdosing (Hamilton, 2000, p. 99). Opium was mostly used by indigenous women and others women for depression and menstrual pain. It was also used by medical practitioners to reduce stress and recreationally by immigrants from China (Hamilton, 2000, p. 100). Attempts at Opium control were mainly to preserve morals and protect health (Hamilton, 2000, p. 100). Beginning in 1901 state parliaments passed bills to control opium usage. Several laws were passed by 1905 preventing use of and importation of opium into the country. However after World War I in 1918, international drug law agreements were formulated and began to be emphasized for the international community and from then onwards, drug issues took on international perspective (Hamilton, 2000, p. 105). Although illicit drugs were in use in Australia, it was minimal. However usage increased with the 1960s blending of cultures and the arrival from the Vietnam War by American troops. Australian youngsters caught up in the social revolution taking place attempted drug use which they accessed readily from the troops (Hamilton 2000, p. 107). This period introduced cannabis heroine and cocaine use and they thus took root in Australia during this time period (Hamilton, 2000, p. 111). Reasons for Cannabis use by Australian Indigenous people The indigenous people have recently increased their use of Cannabis. This has been attributed to increased trafficking, cheaper cost of cannabis compared to other drugs, and acquaintance with its use in indigenous communities (NCPIC, 2008-2010). Cannabis use seems to be more socially acceptable than use of other illicit drugs. The use of cannabis however is linked to the vulnerability the indigenous carry as a result of their tumultuous history. The indigenous people used to live in close knit deeply spiritual communities and had great regard for their land. They were peaceful and had existed without outside interference for a long time. However a turning point in their lives came after colonization by the British leading to a history of dispossession of their land, segregation and subsequent alienation (Thomson, 2008). Much harm came from legislature that was formulated for indigenous protection but which effectively segregated them and broke up families. Although the different territories enacted legislature affecting the natives at different times, they all followed the same course. What began in one territory would be applied to another territory. It was only a matter of time before legislature was enacted in all territories. Beginning from 1869 there was government action to remove Aborigine children from their communities. Children began to be taken to reformatory or industrial schools (Creative Spirits, 2010). The children could also be removed to dormitories according to Chief Protector who was established as Aboriginal and half-caste children’s legal guardian (Creative Spirits, 2010). This led to a lot of family separation and parents were helpless as to the choice for their children. The Aboriginal Protection and Restriction Act was enacted allowing the removal of children from reserves. The director of Native welfare was given power from 1939 to 1971 to be the legal guardian irrespective of parent presence. It effectively meant that it did not matter to the state whether the parents lived or were dead (Creative Spirits, 2010). For the indigenous families this was extremely traumatizing (Phillips, 2003.p.23). At the same time, legislature was passed to outline employment for Aboriginal. The Aboriginals could be forced to live in a settlement while their children were removed. By the time the laws were enforced, a whole generation was affected by the children-parent separation. Family ties were broken, culture was broken, parents experienced guilt at not having been able to protect their children and children grew up without the care of their parents. The culture shock was intense for the Aboriginal children and many were lost between the two conflicting cultures (Phillips, 2003.p.25). The stolen children were often the victims of sexual and physical abuse. They were exploited often receiving no pay for their work. To cope with the vast losses, the Aboriginals indulged in cannabis use and still do in the aftermath of their experiences. Problematic drug abuse among the Indigenous has been linked to their experiences (Phillips, 2003 p. 84). They have since been on a path of recovery from the cultural, political and socio trauma they suffered under British occupation. Even as progress has been made and they have been granted more rights today, the use of cannabis has further continued in response to their deep-rooted economic and societal marginalization (Thomson, 2008.) Education is another social determinant that affects indigenous use of cannabis. Without good education the indigenous do not secure good jobs or have better living standards (Thomson, 2008). Thomson has also cited loss of cultural knowledge as a cause of cannabis use (Thomson, 2008). Without cultural education, Western education can not create a wholesome indigenous person. It is by having proper cultural education and identity that the indigenous can find security and make better choices (Thomson, 2008). Massive negative psychological effects on the indigenous survivors continue today. Employment plays a role in indigenous use of illicit drugs. When faced with unemployment or underemployment, there is more likelihood for the indigenous to take drugs and maintain drug use (Thomson, 2008). Household environment is also linked to drug use where overpopulated households show more levels of overdrinking and smoking (Thomson, 2008). Family dynamics also affect likelihood to engage in illicit drug use. Negative family relationships contribute to drug use and are cited as a major stressor (Thomson, 2008). A look at economic, social and political structures in Australia shows that the indigenous continue to face disadvantages. They hold lower paying jobs, have higher rates of unemployment, get less education and their needs are not adequately addresses (Phillips, 2003 p. 85). It was only in the late 1980s that legislation has offered greater chances for indigenous to have more welfare benefits and better wages. To date Indigenous continue to have a strong inclination to drug use to relieve tension, cope with problems and because it has found itself imbedded into the fiber of their life. Many Indigenous people find drugs already deep rooted in their families and community life (Phillips, 2003 p. 89). Common Drugs Taken by the Indigenous people The drugs that are mostly taken by Indigenous have changed a little with time. In the indigenous culture, Kava use is extensive. Kava is derived from the roots of Piper Methysticum (Prescott, 1990. p. 325). Kava which is usually brewed like tea is usually taken at ceremonial and social occasions. Kava was seen as a harmless replacement for alcohol which was thought to be much more destructive to communities health wise and socially (Prescott, 1990. p. 325). While Kava was thought to be less harmful, over time it has been linked to adverse health (Prescott, 1990. p. 325). It has been linked to shortness of breath, weight loss, rashes, bloodshot eyes and blood irregularities kidney and liver dysfunction, (Prescott, 1990. p. 326). Most harm from kava comes when it is taken in excess or together with other drugs. Due to its effects on health, especially that of the indigenous population, the government introduced stricter laws about its importation in 2007 (Australian Government of Health and Aging, 2010). Another drug of concern among the indigenous is Cannabis. It arrived 1788 in Australia courtesy of the colonialists and was legally and vastly cultivated as a cash crop (Jiggens, 2006). Sydney was a big supplier of cannabis and was hailed for wild supplies of the crop especially in 1964 (Jiggens, 2006). Its consumption on the continent only peaked during Victorian times. It was used medically to facilitate relaxation as well as recreationally among the elite in the community especially artists. Its production and use were propelled by demand and supply by USA troops taking breaks from Vietnam War. They popularized its use among the indigenous especially those in the 18-24 years bracket (Jiggens, 2006). Lately, the increase in the use of this drug has been blamed for grave mental health concerns and social disturbance in Aboriginal families (Lee, et al, 2007. p. 594). Over time, use of Cannabis in the Indigenous communities has been linked to increased suicide, depression, psychosis and violence. Use has been increasing steadily and has been blamed on poor education, unemployment, other drug abuse, poverty, feelings of hopelessness among others (Lee, et al, 2007. p. 595). Although cannabis has been in use for a long time among the Indigenous, it seems to have increased due to introduction of fuel that can not be sniffed. This is especially true in areas where sniffing was common place (NATSIHS 2004-2005). Another category of drugs is the pharmaceuticals and inject-able kind. These includes drug like heroine, cocaine, speed and LSD. Also included are prescription drugs that are abused like cough syrups. Heroine and cocain use became substantially introduced in the Australian scene during the mid 1970s. That came on the heels of cannabis market criminal invasion (Hirst, 1979, p.26). Those who wanted to distribute inject-able drugs invaded the market and reduced supply of cannabis through intimidation (Hirst, 1979, p.28). They used the same cannabis distributors to distribute and increase use of the new drugs. The vacuum was also increased by aggressive police work that seized a lot of Cannabis. Other narcotics also found their way into the Australian market enabled by organized crime and counter culture experienced at this time. (Hirst, 1979, p. 34). According to a 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey, use of inject-able drugs in 2006 among 15 years and older population of the indigenous in rural area was higher than twice that in the general. According to Australian Bureau of Statistics, these drugs have been blamed for increase of HIV and Hepatitis, mental disorders, general ill health and overdoses among indigenous population. Effects of drug use in the Indigenous communities The effects of illicit drug use among the indigenous are vast. They include decline in health, increased rates of domestic and public violence and delinquent and criminal acts (Thompson, 2008). Illicit drug use has also been a contributor to unemployment. Even when the users secure jobs, they are not able to hold on to them due to their addictions. This further endangers their financial independence. They are not able to take care of themselves or fulfill their responsibilities. Family dysfunction has also been a grave consequence of the drug addictions. (Thomson, 2008). Drug usage increases family conflicts about using of finances to buy drugs, lack of parental responsibility and time spent away from the family. As drug abuse takes hold of parents, children are often neglected and suffer malnutrition, diseases and lack of proper care (Phillips, 2003 p. 89). There are also the adverse health effects of drugs on users. The drug users suffer ill health and are therefore unable to function effectively as family members and in the society. They experience cases of hospitalizations. According to Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet, between 2002 and 2004 the indigenous experienced higher hospitalization for drug related reasons. This becomes a financial burden for the drug abusers most of whom are not even financially stable. Drug users have also been found to engage in multiple drug consumption further endangering their health and engage in high risk behaviors including suicides (Thompson, 2008). The drug users have also seen increase in the rates of blood borne diseases including hepatitis and HIV infections. The frequent hospitalizations also rob employers of manpower and deplete financial resources like health insurance. Drug use also impacts the psychological, emotional and social well-being of the users. As a result of illicit drug use especially use of multiple drugs, Indigenous experienced twice the mental disorders the general did. They are prone to co-morbidity exhibiting anxiety and psychotic break down (Thomson, 2008). Intervention to end illicit drug use by the indigenous The first strategy the government has continuously used is the formulation and enforcement of strict anti drugs laws (Campbell, 2001, p. 446) Drug traffickers are continuously to receive heavy penalties to deter them from engaging in the trade. In addition, hard drugs users are also to receive heavy penalties to deter usage of these drugs. The government has also unrolled pilot initiatives in study of drug usage to know the most effective ways to assist the indigenous users and the larger society in dealing with drugs. The government has also established bodies, agencies and treatment programs for the sole purpose of addressing drug abuse. According to Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet, one of them is the National Strategic Framework for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health 2003-2013 (NSFATSIH). It addresses the health goals of Indigenous Australians. In collaboration with the government it will offer a coordinated coalition of transactional approach to health care. Another body is the National Drug Strategy. Its main task is to minimize effects of drugs especially through education. Through these bodies and other programs, the government seeks increase prevention, employ timely intervention and effective treatment (Thomson, 2008). The government is also committed to aggressive elimination of drug suppliers particularly in the indigenous communities. It will achieve this through better education of its law enforcement officers. The government has also committed to setting aside more funds for the fight against drugs. In its report of 2006-2007, the Australian Institute of Health and welfare 2009 found need for the extra spending into the health situation of the Aboriginals and Torres Strait Island people. This is in response to their health needs and the financial hardship those who are most affect experience. To make headways into the fight for better health, drugs usage needs to be addressed since most of the health concerns rotate around this problem. Management of the illicit drug use among the indigenous will greatly contribute to better wellbeing and health of the indigenous. In the 2009, the government committed and spent about $2,976 million on Aboriginals and Torres Strait Island people health care (Australian Institute of Health and welfare, 2009, p. 9). This made up 3.1% of the total health expenditure nationally. This was also higher than the last amount which was 2.8%. Conclusion Illicit drug use among the indigenous has been going on for a long time. The strategies that can work in eradicating this problem lie in assisting the indigenous persons affected in ways that are tailored to their needs. International techniques that have worked in other countries might not necessarily work well with the indigenous of Australia. As Phillip notes in his work, using spirituality and culture is one way the indigenous people can be assisted (Phillips 2003, p. 130). Indigenous population faces great social and health consequences from the continued use of these drugs. It is only by fixing the underlying reasons for vulnerability for drug use that real progress can be made (Phillips 2003, p. 122). Drastic measures and wholistic approach are required effective eradication of the drug problem. The problem of the indigenous use of illicit drug is not just for the indigenous but the whole Australian society (Phillips 2003, p. 124). The indigenous can only make progress with substantial support from the government and other social structures. References Phillips, G. (2003) Addictions and healing in Aboriginal country. Canberra: Aboriginal studies Press. Campbell, C. (2001) The Australian Illicit Drug Guide: Every Person's Guide to Illicit drugs-Their Use, Effects and History, treatment options and Penalties. Melbourne: Black Inc.  Hamilton, M. (2001). ‘Australia’s Drug Policy-Our Own?’ In Gerber, J; Jensen, E. Drug War American Style: The Internationalization of Failed Policy and Its Alternatives. UK: Routledge Publishers. Catto M; Thomson N (2008) Review of illicit drug use among Indigenous peoples. Retrieved on 18th May 2010, from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/health-risks/illicit-drugs/plain-laguage/review-of-illicit-drug-use-among-indigenous-peoples CreativeSpirits. (2010) Australian Aboriginal History. Retrieved on 18th May 2010, from http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/politics/stolen-generations-timeline.html#ixzz0oaJyXqco Prescott, J. (1990) Kava Use in Australia. 9, 325-328. Jiggens, J. (2006) A Short History of cannabis in Australia, 1788-1977. Retrieved on 19th May 2010, from http://www.shaman-australis.com/forum/index.php?showtopic=11448 Lee, K; Clough, A; Conigrave, K. (2007) Cannabis High levels of cannabis use persist in Aboriginal communities in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. 187 (10): 594-595. Hirst, D. (1979) Heroine in Australia. London: Quartet Books. Australian Indigenous Health InfoNet. (2001-2010) Review of illicit drug use among Indigenous peoples. Retrived on 20th May 2010, from http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.edu.au/health-risks/illicit-drugs/plain-laguage/review-of-illicit-drug-use-among-indigenous-peoples Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2009. (2009) Expenditure on Health for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island People 2006-2007. NCPIC. (2008-2010). Policing and cannabis use in Australia. Retrieved on 24th May 2010, from http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/publications/aic-bulletins/article/policing-and-cannabis-use-in-australia Read More

Opium was the common drug in use though without government regulation. The only intervention from the government was in the form of advisory to avoid overdosing (Hamilton, 2000, p. 99). Opium was mostly used by indigenous women and others women for depression and menstrual pain. It was also used by medical practitioners to reduce stress and recreationally by immigrants from China (Hamilton, 2000, p. 100). Attempts at Opium control were mainly to preserve morals and protect health (Hamilton, 2000, p. 100). Beginning in 1901 state parliaments passed bills to control opium usage.

Several laws were passed by 1905 preventing use of and importation of opium into the country. However after World War I in 1918, international drug law agreements were formulated and began to be emphasized for the international community and from then onwards, drug issues took on international perspective (Hamilton, 2000, p. 105). Although illicit drugs were in use in Australia, it was minimal. However usage increased with the 1960s blending of cultures and the arrival from the Vietnam War by American troops.

Australian youngsters caught up in the social revolution taking place attempted drug use which they accessed readily from the troops (Hamilton 2000, p. 107). This period introduced cannabis heroine and cocaine use and they thus took root in Australia during this time period (Hamilton, 2000, p. 111). Reasons for Cannabis use by Australian Indigenous people The indigenous people have recently increased their use of Cannabis. This has been attributed to increased trafficking, cheaper cost of cannabis compared to other drugs, and acquaintance with its use in indigenous communities (NCPIC, 2008-2010).

Cannabis use seems to be more socially acceptable than use of other illicit drugs. The use of cannabis however is linked to the vulnerability the indigenous carry as a result of their tumultuous history. The indigenous people used to live in close knit deeply spiritual communities and had great regard for their land. They were peaceful and had existed without outside interference for a long time. However a turning point in their lives came after colonization by the British leading to a history of dispossession of their land, segregation and subsequent alienation (Thomson, 2008).

Much harm came from legislature that was formulated for indigenous protection but which effectively segregated them and broke up families. Although the different territories enacted legislature affecting the natives at different times, they all followed the same course. What began in one territory would be applied to another territory. It was only a matter of time before legislature was enacted in all territories. Beginning from 1869 there was government action to remove Aborigine children from their communities.

Children began to be taken to reformatory or industrial schools (Creative Spirits, 2010). The children could also be removed to dormitories according to Chief Protector who was established as Aboriginal and half-caste children’s legal guardian (Creative Spirits, 2010). This led to a lot of family separation and parents were helpless as to the choice for their children. The Aboriginal Protection and Restriction Act was enacted allowing the removal of children from reserves. The director of Native welfare was given power from 1939 to 1971 to be the legal guardian irrespective of parent presence.

It effectively meant that it did not matter to the state whether the parents lived or were dead (Creative Spirits, 2010). For the indigenous families this was extremely traumatizing (Phillips, 2003.p.23). At the same time, legislature was passed to outline employment for Aboriginal. The Aboriginals could be forced to live in a settlement while their children were removed. By the time the laws were enforced, a whole generation was affected by the children-parent separation. Family ties were broken, culture was broken, parents experienced guilt at not having been able to protect their children and children grew up without the care of their parents.

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