Farm Production - Essay Example

Farm Production Name: Tutor: Course: Date: Introduction This aim of this paper is to examine whether the outdoor broiler production system is welfare friendly or not compared to confinement systems. ‘Free range’ is a term that is used for broiler birds or layers that meets the standards stipulated by the regional or international bodies. Animal welfare research has mitigated and identified areas such as genetic change, physical environment, social grouping, external conditions, handling, parasites and diseases (Dawkins, 2004:S4). Other welfare concerns include stocking density, shelter provisions and duration of stay. There is a growing ethical, health and environmental awareness with regard to factory farming methods of production. Big producers are now redefining their circumstances to suit themselves while consumers remain under spectrum of a range of conditions. The demand for poultry products from intensely produced welfare friendly chicken has increased the popularity of free-range, Freedom Food, corn fed and organic chicken. Current consumers desire to make informed choices from food products derived from animals. Owing to this level of awareness, some suppliers place incoherent and confusing labeling terms not easily known by the consumers (Defra 2005:37). Health and welfare of ‘Free-range’ broiler chicken Confinement in production systems has seen improvements in genetic selection but increased abnormalities. Broiler chickens in sheds exhibit intense genetic selection which depicts serious abnormalities in behavior. They show signs of stereotyped pecking, chronic hunger, pacing and intake of excess water. Jensen et al (2008:390) notes that quantitative trait locus mapping has helped reduce the problematic feather-pecking behavior, competition for food and aggression among caged chickens. In a similar vein, Dessie et al (2011:510) and Dana et al (2010:1523) argue that satisfactory match between the environment and genetics improves animal welfare. Indigenous breeds of chicken, largely ‘free-range’ in sub-tropical and tropical regions of Africa and Asia are better performing than commercial lines as they tolerate tropical diseases and high temperatures. Defra (2005:38) argue that the standards laid states the improvement in the factory framed production of chicken. The birds stay for all their lives in overcrowded shed or battery cages hence enduring welfare challenges. However, Lymbery (2002:85) maintains that the reality of commercialized free-range production system is far from the image depicted. He notes that birds can be reared in semi-intensive conditions of very large flocks which adversely affect their welfare and health. It can be established that though free-range is preferable to barn or caged production, it falls short of organic farming standards. These short falls involve areas where non-organic free range broilers are in large flocks compromising their health and welfare. These chickens rarely vent outside owing to their large numbers and poor conditions outdoors. Some farmers argue that meat chickens may not need shelter in range area hence discouraging outside roaming (Defra, 2005:47). Physical Environment Environments under which ‘caged’ or shed chicken are exposed contribute directly to their injuries. Lay et al (2011:288) confirms that broiler chickens in sheds are made to use less space outdoors and in houses where the cramped conditions increases risk of health issues like feces, wet litter and stress. Bedding, soil and feed further aggravate their welfare if not periodically tested hence reducing fresh grass access to birds and increases pathogens and parasitic build up in the soil. Like caged ones, free-range chickens may have their beaks trimmed to prevent pecking. However, a nest-dwelling parasite of chicken, the Red mite resides in crevices and cracks of birds causing anemia and deaths. Genetically modified crops like soya and maize can be fed to ‘free-range’ chicken. Fraser and Nichol (2011:189) assert that broiler chicken in free-range systems require high perches for night roosting. Many have a strong motivation to gain access to the perches by pushing showing a sign of frustration. The welfare standards dictate that birds be allowed to nest and perch. Defra (2007:33) and Ranger (2006:22) agree that the free range systems account for more than a quarter of meat sold and a third of all the broilers. They note that the free-range broiler production is shifting to bigger production units with a third of hens occupying 100 farms of more than 20,000 birds. According to Dawkins (2004:S5); Fraser and Nickol (2011:185) inadequate space influences the behavior of crowded birds at the point of resting and feeding. Broiler chicken in sheds exhibit increased injuries, aggression and stress. Free-range chicken enjoy quality and quantity space that increases their welfare. O’Brien (2006:51) reiterates the findings of Elm Farm research centre that many free-range birds do not leave their houses with the number of non-organic birds leaving the houses standing at 15%. He realizes that although birds vent outside, they stay around their houses given their shelters discourages greater outdoor movements. Pye-Smith (2003:59) asserts that pecking is problem which broilers injure and kill each other. Their beaks are mutilated which is painful process as prevents the broilers from foraging and expressing their natural behavior. However, the UK organic farms do not allow systematic beak-tipping. Similarly, their welfare is also compromised through feeding with GM crops such as soya and maize which has been banned from all organic livestock. Environmental conditions Air quality, humidity and temperature of broiler chickens are very important. The caged chickens are kept indoors for their entire lives but with greater space and environmental enrichment. This prohibits cages but is not necessarily ‘free range’. Fraser et al (2013:24) notes that chicken in sheds or indoors experience higher levels of dust and ammonia which causes keratoconjuctivities, damage to trachea and lungs. Free-range birds have more space to forage than caged birds and have less susceptibility to ammonia concentrations beyond 20 parts per million. In caged chickens, feed efficiency decreases when ammonia levels range between 25-60ppm. Snowder et al (2006:2003) notes that caged chicken have poor air quality which reduces their welfare. The bovine respiratory disease which comes about by poor ventilation, humidity and airborne dust particles affects their productivity and welfare. Meat from corn fed chicken is sold in many shops with yellow color since consumers perceive appearance and flavor. The meals in 50% corn meal (maize) which is consumed throughout their entire lives. Defra (2006:40) argues that what people term as ‘natural’ is actually fed indoors with GM maize. Protection from weather extremes is a challenge associated with ‘free-range’ chicken. The shelter provided is convenient for nesting and roosting but not daytime stay. Extreme winter and hot weather can bring about diseases and weight loss. Broom and Johnson (1993:48) suggests that broiler chicken on ‘free-range’ can be allowed to perch in natural cooling sheds like tree branches and in-house cages in times of extreme winter. Feed and Water Normal health and productivity depends on water and feed. Free range birds living in organic farms are encouraged to express their natural behavior by roaming outdoors. Indoor birds have adequate access to water and feed as compared to free-range chicken. These standards extend beyond the demands for 'free-range' chickens. All organic chickens consume diet rich organic cereals that contain less or no pesticides and free of Genetic Modification. It can also be realized that free-range broiler chickens do not need routine doses of antibiotics which increases the reliance on drugs and weakens the bird’s immune system (Soil Association 2005:30). However, rearing of some organic chickens occur in a different way. There is increased demand for certification through higher welfare standards in organic poultry. Free-range chicken do not enjoy the feeding systems and diets compared to that of shed chickens which affects their behavior, health and maturing time. However, D’Mello et al (1999:67) opines that the free-range chickens have higher appetite for insects, worms, sand and grass which increases their resistance to diseases compared to caged chicken which can refuse to eat since mycotoxins easily infiltrate into the feed. When birds spend more of their lives roaming outside they are truly free range. They should also be looked after in smaller flocks and guaranteed of better access to fresh air and grass. These birds must also have greater space in their houses. So as to appropriate more possible bird welfare, the standards organizations suggest flock sizes of a maximum 500 birds. For farmers to show high levels of bird welfare, a maximum of 1,000 meat birds must be permitted in the house (Fraser et al, 2013:23). In contrast, non-standard chickens produced to the current organizational rules such as EU seldom live in huge flocks to an estimated 9,000 birds in a single shed and sold organic broiler meat. In huge flocks, the sheer numbers of birds infers that some chickens’ fails to see or get to the pop holes extending to the range area hence may never venture outside. It is believed that keeping small flock sizes aid in lowering the risk of serious ailments in chickens engendered by pecking each other’s feathers, birds getting bored, excessive bleeding and in many cases death (The Ranger 2006:30). Chickens dislike expansive open spaces since they fear the constant threat of predators. Artificial shelters, trees, and hedges on the range area all assist in encouraging broiler birds to make good use of the available pasture. The laid down standards demands that chickens should enjoy enough cover in their free range areas that encourage them to fully range by mimicking their natural habitat. Free-range standards require more than four meter square of shelter in every range for 500 birds each. Many organic chickens enjoy more fresh pasture compared to any other confined chickens. Farm chickens prefer running around, feeding and scratching in their surroundings. Hence, a fresh area is available for them to forage which is good for their health. Free-range chicken kept in large numbers renders the ground bare and in due course harbor diseases. The ground needs to be rested in order to prevent these problems. Diseases and Parasites The fundamentals of animal welfare are in control and prevention of parasites and diseases. Free-range birds can easily be protected through proper hygiene, anti-parasite treatments and vaccination as compared to shed chicken. The meat flocks should have mobile houses which are moved every few months so that birds get fresh grass and limit disease build up in the soil (Pye-Smith, 2003:16). Because of the idle time, farmers opt for the non-organic ‘free-range’ systems that do not demand land resting at all. Unfortunately, this system leads to poor grass quality and toxin build-up in the soil which resulting in the birds remaining inside all the time. Consumers are cautioned to insist on welfare since organic farmers who go further to maintain quality costs them more to raise their chickens (Fraser et al, 2013:22). For instance in Australia, only 30 percent of organic chicken meat is certified by Australia’s poultry standards. The reason is that many supermarkets and shops choose cheaper ‘organic’ chickens’ stock coming with lower price and consequently higher costs in terms of bird welfare. Given that free-range chicken certification is gaining ground, a lot of effort is still required to improve bird welfare. Human-Animal relationships Experts are increasingly adopting monitoring and improvement and the welfare of farm animals especially birds during handling. The proponents of extensive farming regimes demands that better methods such as free-range production systems be implemented. In the contrary, free-range specifics vary in area and country (Defra, 2007:25). Legislation has controlled the use of intensive farming methods in a way to ensure the welfare of birds and other farm animals. For example, the EU requirements on upper limit of free-range chicken where derogation allows for limitless stocking density. Production of best reared and raised birds reduces the confusion among consumers who are sensitive to quality and correct welfare standards of farm animals. Shed chicken demonstrate higher levels of stress and lower productivity compared to free-range chicken. Harsh handling depresses immune function leading to broken bones, dislocated joints and bruises (Dawkins, 2004:S4). Broiler handlers with positive attitudes achieve greater commercial performance because they believe that animals are sensitive to handling and should not be subjected to a threatening and unpleasant manner. Conclusion This paper has established that outdoor and indoor systems have unique merits and demerits when it comes to animal welfare. It has observed that confinement systems provide excellent protection from infectious diseases but the animals are not free to demonstrate their natural behavior (Broom & Johnson, 1993:186). On the contrary, outdoor systems ‘free-range’ have broiler birds carrying out their natural behavior but become susceptible to extreme weather and predation. It can be realized that unique broiler welfare standards should be established for free-range and confinement chicken. Several authors have observed that the system is intensive and requires breaks for the ground to rest (Fraser et al, 2013:24). The desire for profits and continuous returns has made farmers to prefer indoor methods of production which involve pesticides, chemicals and regulations of internal conditions to mimic the actual external ‘free-range’ system. It can be concluded that the current practice of ‘free-range’ system is not welfare friendly compared to confinement systems since many farmers are confining their birds, propelling their stocking densities and minimizing movement. Birds occupy more than 25 percent of their room as stipulated by the industry standards in the case of intensely reared birds which are commonly referred to as free-range, Freedom Food, corn fed and organic chicken (Levitt-Therivell 2005:31). Confinement systems have higher levels of animal welfare than free-range since they exhibit higher levels of handling, housing, genetics and other components of animal husbandry. References Broom, D.M., Johnson, K.G., 1993. Stress and Animal Welfare. Chapman & Hall, London, England, UK, 211 pp. Dana, N., vander Waaij, L.H., Dessie, T., van Arendonk, J.A.M. (2010). Production objectives and trait preferences of village poultry producers of Ethiopia: Implications for designing breeding schemes utilizing indigenous chicken genetic resources. Tropical Animal Health and Production 42, 1519–1529. Dawkins, M.S. (2004). Using behavior to assess animal welfare. Animal Welfare 13, S3–S7. Defra T. (2005). Explanatory Leaflet on the Production methods for Free Range and Barn eggs marketed under the Egg Marketing Regulations. Review of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. London. Defra T. (2006a). Compendium of UK Organic Standards. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs Defra T. (2006b). What is "corn fed chicken"? Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, Defra T. (2007). Egg Statistics Notice. February 2007. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, D’Mello, J.P.F., Placinta, C.M., Macdonald, A.M.C. (1999). Fusarium mycotoxins: A review of global implications for animal health, welfare and productivity. Animal Feed Science and Technology 80, 183–205. Dessie, T., Taye, T., Dana, N., Ayalew, W., Hanotte, O. (2011). Current state of knowledge on phenotypic characteristics of indigenous chickens in the tropics. World’s Poultry Science Journal 67, 507–516. Fraser, D., & Nicol, C.J. (2011). Preference and motivation research. In: Appleby, M.C., Mench, J.A., Olsson, I.A.S., Hughes, B.O. (Eds.), Animal Welfare, Second Ed. CABI, Wallingford, England, UK, pp. 183–199. Fraser et al (2013). General Principles for the welfare of animals in production systems: The underlying science and its application. The veterinary Journal. 198: 19-24. Lay, D.C., Fulton, R.M., Hester, P.Y., Karcher, D.M., Kjaer, J.B., Mench, J.A., Mullens, B.A., Newberry, R.C., Nicol, C.J., O’Sullivan, N.P., Porter, R.E. (2011). Hen welfare in different housing systems. Poultry Science 90, 278–294. Levitt-Therivell A. (2005). Sustainability implications of the Little Red Tractor scheme. Report for the Sustainable Development Commission Lymbery P. (2002). Farm Assurance Schemes and Animal Welfare. Can We Trust Them? Compassion in World Farming Trust O'Brien, J. (2006). 'Aspects of poultry behaviour: How free-range is free range?', Elm Farm Research Centre Bulletin. Elm Farm Research Centre. Pye-Smith, C. (2003). Batteries not included.Organic farming and animal welfare. Soil Association. Sydney. Jensen, P., Buitenhuis, B., Kjaer, J., Zanella, A., Mormède, P., Pizzari, T. (2008). Genetics and genomics of animal behaviour and welfare – Challenges and possibilities. Applied Animal Behavior Science 113, 383–403. Soil Association (2005). Soil Association Organic Standards. Revision 15. Soil Association. Snowder, G.D., Van Vleck, L.D., Cundiff, L.V., Bennett, G.L. (2006). Bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle: Environmental, genetic, and economic factors. Journal of Animal Science 84, 1999–2008. The Ranger (2006). Now it's 10 million on range. 21November 2006. British Free Range Egg Producers Association www.australiananimalwelfare.com.au www.livestockdialogue.org/.../22_Humane_sustainable_agriculture.pdf‎ www.jasbsci.com/content/4/1/25‎ Appendices Table 1: Comparison of standards for organic and 'free-range' chickens-broiler meat Source: http://www.soilassociation.org/whatisorganic/organicstandards Read More

Fraser and Nichol (2011:189) assert that broiler chicken in free-range systems require high perches for night roosting. Many have a strong motivation to gain access to the perches by pushing showing a sign of frustration. The welfare standards dictate that birds be allowed to nest and perch. Defra (2007:33) and Ranger (2006:22) agree that the free range systems account for more than a quarter of meat sold and a third of all the broilers. They note that the free-range broiler production is shifting to bigger production units with a third of hens occupying 100 farms of more than 20,000 birds.

According to Dawkins (2004:S5); Fraser and Nickol (2011:185) inadequate space influences the behavior of crowded birds at the point of resting and feeding. Broiler chicken in sheds exhibit increased injuries, aggression and stress. Free-range chicken enjoy quality and quantity space that increases their welfare. O’Brien (2006:51) reiterates the findings of Elm Farm research centre that many free-range birds do not leave their houses with the number of non-organic birds leaving the houses standing at 15%.

He realizes that although birds vent outside, they stay around their houses given their shelters discourages greater outdoor movements. Pye-Smith (2003:59) asserts that pecking is problem which broilers injure and kill each other. Their beaks are mutilated which is painful process as prevents the broilers from foraging and expressing their natural behavior. However, the UK organic farms do not allow systematic beak-tipping. Similarly, their welfare is also compromised through feeding with GM crops such as soya and maize which has been banned from all organic livestock.

Environmental conditions Air quality, humidity and temperature of broiler chickens are very important. The caged chickens are kept indoors for their entire lives but with greater space and environmental enrichment. This prohibits cages but is not necessarily ‘free range’. Fraser et al (2013:24) notes that chicken in sheds or indoors experience higher levels of dust and ammonia which causes keratoconjuctivities, damage to trachea and lungs. Free-range birds have more space to forage than caged birds and have less susceptibility to ammonia concentrations beyond 20 parts per million.

In caged chickens, feed efficiency decreases when ammonia levels range between 25-60ppm. Snowder et al (2006:2003) notes that caged chicken have poor air quality which reduces their welfare. The bovine respiratory disease which comes about by poor ventilation, humidity and airborne dust particles affects their productivity and welfare. Meat from corn fed chicken is sold in many shops with yellow color since consumers perceive appearance and flavor. The meals in 50% corn meal (maize) which is consumed throughout their entire lives.

Defra (2006:40) argues that what people term as ‘natural’ is actually fed indoors with GM maize. Protection from weather extremes is a challenge associated with ‘free-range’ chicken. The shelter provided is convenient for nesting and roosting but not daytime stay. Extreme winter and hot weather can bring about diseases and weight loss. Broom and Johnson (1993:48) suggests that broiler chicken on ‘free-range’ can be allowed to perch in natural cooling sheds like tree branches and in-house cages in times of extreme winter.

Feed and Water Normal health and productivity depends on water and feed. Free range birds living in organic farms are encouraged to express their natural behavior by roaming outdoors. Indoor birds have adequate access to water and feed as compared to free-range chicken. These standards extend beyond the demands for 'free-range' chickens. All organic chickens consume diet rich organic cereals that contain less or no pesticides and free of Genetic Modification. It can also be realized that free-range broiler chickens do not need routine doses of antibiotics which increases the reliance on drugs and weakens the bird’s immune system (Soil Association 2005:30).

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