Physiology and Biochemistry of Micronutrients - Literature review Example

Physiology and Biochemistry of Micronutrients Micronutrients can be considered as included in the most important elements of the human body. In thelack of such micronutrients the welfare and condition of health of the people is questioned. I. Iron Deficiency Iron in the human body can be considered as one of the most important micronutrients. Basically, the deficiency in iron can be considered as a very common problem in different nations around the world. Basically there are different reasons for the said deficiency in iron. One is the physiological characteristics of the said macronutrient that can make it susceptible to decrease and even failure in absorption in mechanisms and processes which have detrimental effects. Basically one of the most important roles of iron in the body is in terms of the erythropoiesis with the main sources as senescent erythrocytes in the bone marrow. In the case of iron deficiency, the need of the bone marrow is not supplied thus there is less micronutrient in the process of erythropoiesis. One of the most common indications is the low Hb content in the blood (Handelman & Levin, 2008, 400-403). Physiologically, the study of the deficiency in iron can be attributed to the process involved in the acquisition of iron in the body such as absorption along with its cycle of excretion and kinetic journey through the body. It is important to consider though that iron can be considered as an active element and ion that can be affected both chemically by other substances and by reactions to different mechanisms in the body. Although the exact process that are involved in the gradient that the human body have in the absorption of iron, the food that is eaten and the dietary habits can be considered as one of the primary causes of deficiency in iron (Conrad & Barton, 1981, 200). Around the world, due to the low intake of food with iron content, inevitability of the condition can be considered. Such problems in the lack of food and diet with the said micronutrient can affect the physiological, biochemical and immunological composition of the body. Specifically, the iron-binding systems that functions efficiently with iron will not properly function. In some cases, these sites are bound to other chemicals which in turn can also harm the body (Conrad & Barton, 1981, 215-220). II. Calcium Metabolism Calcium metabolism is the manner by which the body uses up and absorbs calcium on the basis of the needs of the body. Due to the fact that calcium can be considered as the most abundant mineral in the body, the need for the maintenance of such amount requires dietary and even supplementary sustenance. The main idea behind the case of calcium metabolism is calcium homeostasis which is the projected balance expressed in the similar amount of the calcium needs and the calcium intake of the body. There are two cases of abnormal calcium metabolism in the body. These are hypocalcemia which is the state of being deficient in calcium and hypercalcemia which is the state of having too much calcium intake. Basically, upon study, one of the most important sources of calcium is through intake. Although this is the case, the increase in intake cannot be directly correlated to the increase in calcium absorption (Kerstetter, O’Brien, and Insogna, 2003, 585S). One of the reasons for the said case is the result of studies that increasing the calcium intake can cause the increase of urinary calcium. The said scenario can then be considered as the absence of efficient capability of the body to be able to absorb and transform calcium into its viable and biologically usable form. Another important factor in terms of the sources of calcium for calcium metabolism is high protein foods. The increase in the intake of the said food groups had been observed to increase the action of calcium absorption in the intestine and thus can be considered as one of the essential pathways in the sufficient intake of calcium needed and required by the body (Kerstetter, O’Brien, and Insogna, 2003, 585S). The main notion that is needed to be remembered in the process of calcium metabolism then can be based on the relationship between the amount of calcium intake and the calcium homeostasis. The medium and normal intake of protein rich diet can be considered as the most effective in terms of supplementing the needs of the human body. The said normal range of protein intake as recommended by the RDA is 100-150% or 1.0-1.5 protein/kg. The said range of protein intake can bring about normal urinary calcium excretion and behavior of different organs. Although the result of dietary intake of calcium is expected for the normal range, those with above or below required amount do not correspondingly get the expected results. This can be attributed to the fact that the human body has the capability to adjust the supply through different sources. Predicting the exact output of the changes in the calcium intake cannot be considered corresponding to the results in metabolism. It can be considered that hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia are mainly caused largely by the calcium needs of the body but in addition the effects of the lack or excessive calcium in different organs (Kerstetter, O’Brien, and Insogna, 2003, 586-587S). III. Niacin and Thiamine Niacin and thiamine are included in the most common vitamins and micronutrients. Niacin Niacin refers to vitamin B3 or nicotinic acid that can be considered as essential composition of different conenzymes such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) which are essential in the metabolic processes of the body. The presence of niacin in the organism’s system is fundamental in two types of processes namely oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and non-redox reactions. Oxidation-reduction reactions are essential in the electron transport systems specifically in the degradation of energy sources such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohols, and other macromolecules (Higdon, 2002). Deficiency of niacin can ultimately lead to pellagra which is characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia and even death. Early niacin deficiency can be observed through abnormalities in the skin (roughness), digestive (red tongue, vomiting, etc.) and nervous systems (“headache, apathy, fatigue, depression, disorientation and memory loss”) Thiamine Thiamine is included in the vitamin B complex being B1 or aneurine which is water-soluble and functions as a conenzyme in the synthesis of thiamin pyrophosphate in energy production. The deficiency in the said vitamin can lead to beriberi in the acute level. The effects of the low levels of the said micronutrient can be observed in the cardiovascular, nervous, muscular and gastrointestinal systems (Higdon, 2002). IV. Other Micronutrients a) Retinol is also referred to as vitamin A in general. It is fat-soluble and an alcohol which is essential in the gene transcription process of the cell. It is one of the Vitamin A groups referred to as retinoids. Common sources retinol includes beta-carotene and carotenoids that can be utilized in the form provitamin A. Included in the essential functions of the said micronutrient are in the immune system, embryonic development and red blood cell differentiation. These functions can be considered in relation to the role of retinol in the regulation of gene expression. In addition retinol is essential in the functioning of the retina specifically to be able to ultimately produce rhodopsin for night vision functions of the eye (Higdon, 2002). b) Folate (vitamin B or Folic acid) can be considered as an essential micronutrient that is limited in food and the human body but is commonly found in supplements and fortified foods. The said micronutrient is essential in one-carbon metabolism of nucleic and amino acids (Higdon, 2002). c) The roles of vitamin E are being antioxidant in the form of alpha-tocopherol and other minor yet essential functions such as cell signaling in the form of protein kinase C and in the immune activity such as platelet aggregation and vasodilation. The participation in the antioxidant defense system is one of the most essential functions of vitamin E due to the free radicals and pollutants that can affect body functioning. The alpha-tocopherol can prevent formation of lipids that can bring about hard to the cell membrane which is the main protection of the cells. The said vitamin also prevents oxidation of low density lipoproteins or LDLs which are important in liver functions (Higdon, 2002). d) The function of Vitamin D is mainly in the absorption of calcium in the intestinal tract for the prevention of hypocalcemia. Also, regeneration of bone specifically through the osteoblasts and osteoclasts and the prevention of rickets, osteomalacia and osteoporosis are also included in the roles of vitamin D. Other functions include reduction of inflammation and balancing of neuromuscular functions. It also functions in the prevention of cancer by maintaining proper functioning of the cells. Other areas wherein vitamin D is considered helpful are cognitive functions and immune functions specifically from bacterial infections (Higdon, 2002). e) n-3 which is also referred to as azide is an anion required in organic systems as a conjugate base of hydrazoic acid. It is isoelectronic with important organic molecules such as carbonates and nitrates. Important functions wherein the said molecule is needed is the Staudinger Ligation, which is also referred to as the Curtius rearrangement (e.g. the synthesis of γ-imino-β-enamino esters) (Mangelincks et al, 2006, 202-204). References: Conrad, M. E. and Barton, J. C. (1981) Factors affecting iron balance. Am J Hematol. 1981, 10(2), p. 199-225. Handelman, G. J. and Levin, N. W. (2008) Iron and anemia in human biology: a review of mechanisms. Heart Fail Rev. 2008 Dec, 13(4), p. 393-404. Higdon, J. (2002) Micronutrient Information Center. Oregon State University: Linus Pauling Institute. Also available in Kerstetter, J. E. O’Brien, K. O. and Insogna, K. L. (2003) Dietary protein, calcium metabolism, and skeletal homeostasis revisited1,2,3,4. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2003 Sep. 78(3), p. 584S-592S. Mangelincks, S., Van Vooren, P., De Clerck, D., Fulop, F. and De Kimpe, N. (2006) An efficient synthesis of γ-imino- and γ-amino-β-enamino esters. ARKIVOC 2006, p. 202-209. Read More