Appreciation of the Common Black Wattle - Report Example

A. Introduction This report delves on the effect of alien invasive species in place of native vegetation. Such is the case of the black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) -- a rich source of tannin (see Black wattle 2009; Australian Plant Society 2000; Kodela 2002) -- which was transported from Australia to Tanzania some 150 years ago (Low 2002, pp. 171; see UNEP 2006). Given the economic contributions of black wattle to the nation’s coffer, which the acacia industry players are shouting out, a holistic view however of its effect as invading monoculture crop is revealing contrary perception. It was once believed that monoculture plantations are sustainable. But, in the light of their significant impacts on the natural biodiversity, soil quality, water supply, yield and over-all ecosystem health, indications there are now that invading monoculture crops are actually doing more harm than good. B. The black wattle Black wattle is a tree of many uses in Rhodesia, India, South America and South and East Africa. Its wood is ideal as fuel and building material (see Australian Plants Society 2000). Its bark is used for wood adhesives and flotation agents. The pulp is made into wrapping paper and hardboard. It is add to give nitrogen and organic materials to improve the soil, and some even regard it as attractive agents. It is also used for erosion control, while some farmers claim that tobacco and vegetable yields are doubled in rotating with the black wattle and folk doctors use it as styptics or astringents (see Duke 1983; Kodela 2002). What makes black wattle a tree of economic significance is the tannin extract that it provides, which has world-wide markets. Except for some mangrove species, black wattle produces more tannin per hectare than most tannin-producing plants. In (South) Africa, the production of tannin is two (2) times the average production. In the 1970’s, for example, the exports of wattle bark extracts hit an average of 9,000 tons. Although in 1980’s the export demand for wattle tannin declined to just about 4,000 tons only, it again picked up from 1990 onwards (FAO 1992). And, with these productions, the plantations in South Africa, Rhodesia, Kenya, Brazil and Tanzania actually supply about thirty-eight per cent (38%) of word demand for tannin (Duke 1983). C. Case against black wattle Be that as it may, though, there is still strong case against black wattle. That is, in the long run, it is not going to be sustainable on the following accounts. Firstly, seen from its bigger context, black wattle won’t help in the long run because, as pointed out by environmental experts, alien invasive species from toads to trees (to which group black wattle belongs) are identified as among the emerging issues that face Africa and its environment for the 21st century (see, for instance, FISNA 2005). These alien species were introduced in the continent of Africa as a result of importing popular and fast growing (European and/or Australian) trees (FISNA 2005, pp. 6). Now, they have become invasive as they have gradually invaded nature reserves and displaced native species (FISNA 2005, pp. 10). Too, they are said to result to poisoning of cattle, damaging water supply, carrying infections and even adversely affecting tourism. In fact, if this negative impact to Africa is monetized, its estimated equivalent is up to hundreds of millions of dollars in damages per year. Given this huge negative impact, Africa fears for its economic progress – among others (see UNEP 2006). Secondly, in particular, black wattle is considered as a “green cancer,” as it spreads like weeds (Duke 1983). Being able to escape from plantations and spread along roads and river banks, black wattle forms impassable thickets that replace the natural vegetation in indigenous forests and hamper the flow of water along river. Specifically, black wattle has even threatened to harm the Cape Floral Kingdom, one of the world’s great biodiversity hotspots – for which, in South Africa, the government yearly spends around forty million dollars (U$40 million) just for manual and chemical control of all alien species (UNEP 2006). Thirdly, mono-culture planting, or the simple system of planting just one type of tree of the same age, grown, the same distance apart, and clear-felled at the same time (Rosoman 1994, pp. 26; see the Introduction by Carrere & Lohmann [n.d.]), results to destruction of what is considered the pinnacle of nature’s wealth – i.e., biodiversity. Truth is, in comparison to natural forest ecosystems, biodiversity in monoculture tree plantations is stumpy. Diversity is low when there are few species, low genetic variation within species, few interactions between different species, limited range of habitats, and little landscape diversity. Because of this, it becomes understandable why diversity is often used as a measure of ecosystem’s health, stability and resilience as it sustains the evolutionary potential of the indigenous landscape (Rosoman 1994, pp. 26). And, since it negates biodiversity (see Rosoman 1994, pp. 27), monoculture opens up the prospect of lessened control of pest numbers and outbreaks. This has been confirmed by experiences in tropical and sub-tropical regions, such as the outbreak of leaf-blight in rubber tree plantations in South America, the canker fungus in Gmelia arborea plantations in Brazil, insect borer that laid waste a plantation of Papua New Guinea variety of eucalyptus in the Philippines, and the cypress aphid in Kenya and Malawi. Finally, if the foregoing three reasons appear to be qualitative, and does not appeal to the often-money-thinking-government-officials, Beinart’s (2008) exposition of cost benefit analysis of the black wattle would contend with them as they are (see also Chamcama & Nwonwu 2004, pp. 12-14, for discussion on economic and ecological sustainability). Accordingly, the lost economic value of water flow because of black wattle invasions is more or less US$1.4 billion per year. This is over and above the cost of ecological destruction that the invasion of black wattle effects (Beinart 2008, pp. 9). To complete the picture, Beinart (2008) similarly presents the benefits of black wattle. He posits that the value of plantation production of black wattle may be calculated at US$363 million. The rural smallholders assign US$143 million a year for the firewood that they collect and sell. The estimate for wood use and building stands at US$21 million (Beinart 2008, pp. 10). Commonsensical it is, then, that should values be assigned to the cost and benefits of black wattle plantations, the ensuing economics would favor the phasing out of this invading tree and, in its lieu, consider developing the native vegetation of Tanzania (FAO 1992 interestingly points out that should Tanzania drops black wattle it is not going to head to a broke). D. Annotated bibliography Beinart, W. (2008). Costs and benefits of plant transfers and bio-invasion in historical perspective with particular reference to Africa. Retrieved from http://www.ecoeco.org/conference08/pdf/Beinarrt_Plant_Transfers_Nairobi_Published.pdf This paper consists of two parts. The first part is critique’s Alfred Colby’s concept of environmental or ecological imperialism. Colby looks at transferring plants and trees from one region to another as facilitating colonialism. Beinart, however, brings to fore the problematic aspect of Colby’s theory. However, for this paper, Beinart (by citing Colby) is able to provide a nomenclature (negative though it may be) to describe the facilitation of invading alien species. And the second part presents a cost and benefit analysis of plant transfers and bio-invasion (in South Africa). Through this, it’s shown vividly that indeed the cost of black wattle outweighs its benefits. Carrere, R & Lohmann, L. [n.d.]. Pulping the south: Industrial tree plantations in the world paper economy. Retrieved from http://www.wrm.org.uy/plantations/material/pulping4.html This is actually a book that was commissioned in 1994 by the World Rainforest Movement – whose bias on issue of ecology or environment cannot be concealed. Written by an Uruguayan author (Carrere) and English writer (Lohmann), the impetus for the book was the increasing concern among non-governmental organizations in the South over the spread of monoculture tree plantations. The first chapter of this book proves to be very helpful for this paper, where the authors clearly delineate between plantations and forests, plainly discuss the historical advent of monoculture, and gave a name on this practice – that is, plantation imperialism. Chamcama, S. & Nwonwu, F. (2004). Forest plantations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved from http://www.ksla.se/sv/retrieve_file.asp?n=749 This is actually a report prepared for the project pertinent to sustainable forest management in Africa. The authors attempted to study forest plantations in Africa. The import of this report especially to this paper is supplied by its section on economic and ecological sustainability. The book is very emphatic in putting forward that in determining the sustainability of a forest plantation project, the balance must be maintained between economic and ecological concerns. Before, the economic considerations had always been focused on. Lately, the ecological concerns viz. plantations have begun to be addressed. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1992). Pilot country study on NWFP for Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5325e/x5325e08.htm Done by a United Nations agency, FAO, this study provides a perspective on what’s going to be left for Tanzania (should the country abandons its plantations of black wattle). As the study shows, Tanzania has a lot in its possession that its government may altogether stopped growing the acacia tree and still not hurt economically. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2006). Africa’s natural wealth key to economic prospects (AEO-2). Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp?DocumentID=480&ArticleID=5307&l=en This is a news release issued by this United Nations agency, heralding successes and challenges that were highlighted in Africa Environment Outlook – 2. This literature was chosen precisely because it validates and supports FAO (1992) study, and hence echoes similar notions. It challenges the common perception that the continent of Africa is poor. In fact, its vast natural wealth may be the basis for the awakening of the entire continent. However, aside from being not properly managed, Africa’s natural wealth is even threatened by, among others, invading alien life-form – such as the black wattle. References: Australian Plants Society (2000). In appreciation of the common black wattle. Retrieved from http://asgap.org.au/APOL19/sep00-4.html Beinart, W. (2008). Costs and benefits of plant transfers and bio-invasion in historical perspective with particular reference to Africa. Retrieved from http://www.ecoeco.org/conference08/pdf/Beinarrt_Plant_Transfers_Nairobi_Published.pdf Black wattle (2009). Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/68406/black-wattle Carrere, R & Lohmann, L. [n.d.]. Pulping the south: Industrial tree plantations in the world paper economy. Retrieved from http://www.wrm.org.uy/plantations/material/pulping4.html Chamcama, S. & Nwonwu, F. (2004). Forest plantations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Retrieved from http://www.ksla.se/sv/retrieve_file.asp?n=749 Duke, J.A. (1983). Acacia mearnsii de wild. Retrieved from http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Acacia_mearnsii.html Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1992). Pilot country study on NWFP for Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/X5325e/x5325e08.htm Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa (FISNA) (2005). Proceedings of the first workshop on the Forest Invasive Species Network for Africa [FISNA], held on 29 August 2009 at the Ice Conference Hall, Sukoine University of Agriculture (SUA), Morogoro, Tanzania. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/forestry/dev/10954-1-0.pdf Kihiyo, V. (1998). Forest policy changes in Tanzania: towards community participation in forest management. Retrieved from http://srdis.ciesin.columbia.edu/cases/tanzania-009.html Kodela, P. G. (2002). Acacia mearnsii de wild. Retrieved from http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Acacia~mearnsii Low, T. (2002). Feral future: the untold story of Australia’s exotic invaders. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Rosoman, G. (1994). The plantation effect. Retrieved from www.wrm.org.uy/countries/Aotearoa/effect.rtf United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2006). Africa’s natural wealth key to economic prospects (AEO-2). Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default.asp?DocumentID=480&ArticleID=5307&l=en Read More