Intercultural Communication Theory: Conflict Resolution and Culture - Coursework Example

The current state of research in intercultural communication theory: conflict resolution and culture: Types of cultural conflicts, how culture manages conflicts, and the resolution perspectives of these cultures. Introduction The idea of culture is presented to us as characteristic of human which is dynamic. This informed by experience and history, past and present of social interaction. In a nutshell, it is the way people think and act. In this way, as Avrich (2008) argues that by perceiving culture in this can be useful in the analysis of conflict and resolution. Avrich (2008) criticizes these traditional definitions and puts forward their disadvantages. He argues that these definitions of culture label groups of people for the sake of academic and accelerating conflict or scientific study. Culture in this case is seen as a way to understand the conflict context. The main goal of cultural studies is to enlighten scholars and practitioners to get a clearer and an in-depth understanding of the role culture plays in the resolution of culture. In this paper, I am going to look at what role culture plays in conflict resolution, the types of cultural conflicts, and how culture manages conflict. It is, however, necessary to understand the definition of terms concerning this subject. Definition of terms Intercultural communication Intercultural communication or otherwise referred to as cross -cultural communication is a form of global communication used to describe the numerous range of communication problems, that naturally appear within an organization. This organization includes individuals who come from different ethnic, social religious and educational backgrounds. Multicultural communication in this regard seeks to understand how people from different cultures and countries interact, communicate, and perceive the world around them (Novinger, 2001). International communication focuses on language social attributes, thought patterns, and cultures of different groups of people. Moreover, it also entails getting to understand diverse cultures, customs of people from other countries and their language. Intercultural communication in many studies cut across linguistics, psychology, anthropology, cultural studies, and communication studies. Intercultural communication also acts as a basis for international business. Conflict Conflict as put forward by LeBaron (1993) can be described as the continuous competition between individuals and among groups over resources which are scarce, certain goals or the power needed to acquire these resources and meet the goals. These competitions differ according to how the individuals or groups perceive this power, goals and resources. Culture, which is a socially inherited virtue, is one of the determinants of these perceptions. Cross cultural conflicts can be defined as the conflicts that arise between different individuals or social groups. In other cases, the society has a way of categorizing people into different cultures. It might be through clans, families, language, religion, region, trade unions, occupation; education, among others. The above groups contain distinct culture in them and, thus the society constitutes a number of sub-cultures which render the society a bit complicated. Culture Culture has not yet been given a definite definition by Social anthropologists, bearing in mind that Social anthropology is the academic field which is concerned with the study of culture. However, we can define culture as a shared set of norms, beliefs, values, behavior, attitudes, and social structures that guide everyday interactions and define reality (Hall, 1976). This definition, therefore, insinuates that culture is a characteristic of a group. It also contemplates the fact that there are many variations within a group and also between different groups. In most cases, we associate culture with national group; however, culture includes clans, ethnic groups, tribes and organizations. Moreover, teams that are within certain organizations also have attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that constitute unique cultures. Many cultures share a number of similarities; however, it is crucial not to assume the differences that exist. The bell curve is a powerful tool for considering the different cultures of groups. The curve will confirm that majority group culture share a set of attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs. There will, however, be members of a cultural group that will be significantly different from the norm. Culture is seen as more than just dress, food, and language custom. Cultural groups may share an ethnicity, nationality or even race but they also crop up from sexual orientation, ability and disability, political, religious affiliations, language, just to give, but a few examples. What should be noted about culture is the fact that it is ever changing and relates metaphorically to the dimensions of life. These symbolic dimensions are what we use in the enacting our identities and making meaning. Cultural messages emanating from the groups we belong give people what is important and meaningful in defining our identities and who they are in the world in relation to others. In every culture, members identify with the group or a team rather than as individuals. Moore and Woodrow (2009) assert that individualistic cultures place a high value of creativity, autonomy, and authority in making decisions. Individual interests come over group interest, and any commitment to the group is seen as a function of individual benefit. On the other hand, collectivists’ cultures value the group over an individual. In this case, commitment to the group is valued to personal interests. Maintenance of harmony is, therefore, important. Individualistic culture is dominant in places like Canada, Australia, USA, and New Zealand whereas collectivist’s culture dominates the rest of the world. Recent census in California found that 7% are African American, 32% is Hispanic, and 10% are of Asian descent. Therefore, we can argue that a relatively high percentage of the workforce is derived from the social environment that is collectivist. Types of cultural conflicts There are a number of cultural conflicts in the world today, for instance, conflicts that occur because of disputes over land, and territory. These arise when people of diverse race, ethnic or cultural groups that seek to claim independence from or stamp political supremacy over each other. It is essential to go into detail by looking at examples of recent cultural conflicts. This will give us an insight on how cultural conflicts arise and how they endure. The persistent conflict between Israel and the Palestine owes to the enduring dispute between Palestine Arabs and Israeli Jews. LeBaron (1993) observes that these two countries have a deep religious and political history which stretches back to thousands of years. The present conflict between Israel and other states more so Palestine dates back to 1940s, the year Israel state was officially instituted. The conflicts mainly dwell on the difference when it comes to West Bank and Gazza borders. These territories are often referred to as occupied territories, a territory occupied by both Arab and Jewish communities. These communities have been constantly fighting over the territories. Israelis it to be their rightful home while, on the other hand, Palestinians are after the ownership of the land to establish an independent Palestinian state. The religious significance attached to the land owes it difficult for both sides to make a peaceful resolution. Nevertheless, international leaders have chipped in and oversee the process of peace for the past several decades. Religious conflicts also have deep historical roots. For instance, the conflict between protestants and catholic communities in Northern Ireland dates back to early 1600s when colonial settlers who were protestants set foot in the Irish shore from England. However, “TheTroubles”, which is the, most recent wave of disputes, began in 1960s. The Catholics in this case sought to reunify with Ireland while the protestant unionist opted to remain part of the United Kingdom. These differences escalated much later into a great deal of violence, which included terrorist’s attacks on both Irish and British soil. These happened particularly in the wake of 1970s and 1980s. A series of conflicts also arose when Yugoslavia took to war in the early nineteen nineties. During this time, a series of complex conflicts that involved different cultural groups in Yugoslavia arose. That is the Bosniaks, Serbs, and Croats. Inter ethnic conflicts Muslim, Serb, Albania, and Roma groups dictated this era. These ethnic differences eventually culminated into genocide. This saw the presence of NATO and UN peacekeeping forces that helped Serbia, Bosnia, and Croatia become independent. The War Crimes Tribunal was also instituted in 1995 in The Netherlands with an aim of bringing to book leaders alleged to have played a role in ordering ethnic violence and genocide. Another example of cultural conflict that arose due to ethnic and religious differences is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. This saw the death of hundred of thousands of ethnic Tutsis by the Hutu militant group. The Tutsis were slaughtered by the Hutus since they were the minority group that Hutus felt they had dominated everything in the country. In another incident termed the Trail of Tears, which was perpetrated against the Cherokee by the United States government? The 1790s to 1830s saw the population of Georgia grow significantly. Georgia continued to settle in the Native American land, and further forced them into the periphery. The Cherokee who had settled in western Georgia as their home continued their stay until 1828. In the process, they had adapted to the culture, and customs of the Europeans, for instance the women adapted to the wearing of gowns, they built churches, roads, and schools, which had a, system of representative government which were farmers and ranchers. In 1838, the United States Army began the invasion of the Cherokee nation in what came to be known as the Trails of Tears. These serve to give just but a few examples of how cultural conflicts are experienced and endured over time. Where culture and Conflict connect In the human relationships, conflicts arise and cultures affect the ways of naming, framing, and taming these conflicts. Culture is always a factor in conflict and in one way or another; it plays a role in influencing conflicts. This is because, for any conflict that touches on people, there is always a component of culture in it. A conflict that we had mentioned earlier- Palestine and Israel- is not just about the territory boundaries, but also about representation, acknowledgement, and legitimization of different identities and ways of living and making meaning. Conflicts between different groups of people, for instance, parents and teenagers are shaped by generational culture. On the other hand, conflicts between spouses are profoundly shaped by gender culture. Conflicts that come up in different disciplinary cultures, in organizations, create communication that is inaccurate and stressed relationship. We can argue that culture and conflict are terms that go hand in hand since when differences arise in communities or organizations, it is hard to find the absence of culture. In this instance, it shapes attitudes, behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes. Cultures that are shared by the dominant groups seem natural. When we belong to the cultural groups which are too large to the community, we are less likely to be aware of the messages they send to us. We only notice the take notice to the effect of cultures that are different from our own, attending behaviors that we term strange (Avruch, 1998). Although culture and conflict are intertwined, there are some cultural approaches to conflict resolutions minimize cultural influences and issues. Bringing cultural fluency to conflicts and to acknowledge culture can help all kinds of people make adaptive and more intentional choices. Conflict Resolution The concept of culture in relation to conflict directs its attention to problems of interpretation, intercultural communication, and diverse decision making. Better understanding of cross cultural conflict and better resolution techniques can be enhanced by understanding different sorts of cultures. In this case negotiation has proved to be effective in solving cultural conflicts. Having established that culture plays an important role in conflicts, more should be done to ensure that it is included in response planning. Cultures may be compared to children who are temperamental. They are complex, elusive, and difficult to predict. We, therefore, ought to develop comfort with cultures, failure to which, we will find ourselves entangled in its complexity nature limited by our o0wn cultural lenses. It is, therefore, paramount for us to acquaint ourselves in cultural fluency in order to manage myriad cultural conflicts. Fluency in culture means familiarizing oneself with the cultures. That is how they work, their natures and the ways in which they intertwine with our relationship in times of conflict and harmony. It also means being aware means that one is aware of the several dimensions of culture. They include communication, approaches to meaning making, ways of naming, framing and taming conflicts, and the role and identities. Communication refers to different ways in which we relate to and with others. Most of the messages in high -context communication are conveyed by the surrounding context as opposed to being named explicitly in words. In this case, a given communication meaning mostly rely on the shared understanding, the way things are said, and the physical setting. The non verbal cues are essential to understanding of the message and relied on to communicate in the absence of verbal expressions. On the other hand, in the absence of verbal expressions, the context is trusted to communicate, and sometimes in addition to them. High context communication is considered to be efficient compared to low -context communication; however, it contains a high possibility of miscommunication since most of the message intended is not stated. Both low and high context communication may not only refer to communication strategies but also used to understand cultural groups. Cultures from the west generally tend to lean towards low- context communication, whereas the Southern and the Eastern cultures tend to the high context communication. It should be noted that the two categories have many differences and a number of variations. The former communication tends to be featured, and the specific attention ought to be paid to the non verbal cues and behavior of other people who may understand more of unstated rules, which govern communication. The latter is the norm and directness is expected in return. Conclusion In conclusion, there are no agreement across cultures on what constitutes a conflict or how the events in interaction should be framed, similarly, there are many, diverse ways of thinking about how to curb it. There is not a single approach that can resolve conflict since culture is always a factor. Therefore, being fluent in cultures is an essential competency for people who intervene in the issue of culture or those who simply wants to function more effectively in their own situations and lives. In this case, one should bare in mind that communication that is naming, framing, and taming of conflict varies across cultures. This paper sought to look at the current research that have been done in regards to intercultural communication and theory. The paper has specifically analyzed the concept of culture in relation to how it manages conflicts, the types of cultural conflicts and the resolution perspectives to these cultures. In a nutshell, the paper has given a holistic approach to the subject at hand giving an overview of the terms and concepts that are going to be expounded further in the subsequent paper. References Avruch, K. (1998). Culture and Conflict Resolution. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace. pp. 153 Avruch K., Black P. & Scimecca J., eds. (1998). Conflict Resolution: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. New York: Praeger Press. Pp. 244 Conze, E. (1951). Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. New York: HarperCollins. Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Hampden.T., Charles & Fons T. ( 2000). Building Cross Cultural Competence. How to Create Wealth from Conflicting Values. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. LeBaron, M. & Bruce G. (1993). Conflict and Culture: Research in Five Communities in British Columbia, Canada. Victoria, British Columbia: University of Victoria Institute for Dispute Resolution. LeBaron, M. (2003). Bridging Cultural Conflicts. A New Approach for a Changing World. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Lederach, J. P. (1995). Preparing for Peace. Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Novinger, T. (2001). Intercultural Communication. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Okun, B. et al. (1999). Understanding Diversity. A Learning as Practice Primer. 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