The Main Principles of Effective Practice In the Teaching And Assessment of Reading - Essay Example

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE PRACTICE IN THE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF READING Introduction This paper aims to discuss the main principles of effective practice in the teaching and assessment of reading alongside justification of perspective by reference to a broad range of appropriate reading. There are a wide range of methods employed for the aim of improving children’s reading comprehension, which usually include training the ability to self-assess comprehension, testing actively comprehension with the use of a set of questions, and by improving meta-cognition (Pakhare 2007). It is also said that conceptual/theoretical teaching alongside a better knowledge of language facilitates reading. Practice plays a great role in the development of reading comprehension; thus providing a rich source of strategies to improve the task. It would also help to indulge in self-assessment and elaborate interrogation (ibid). The Main Principles of Effective Practice in Teaching and Assessment of Reading Effective teaching is crucial in enabling learners understand how to read and the underlying concepts behind such learning. An effective reader is a product of employed good strategies, which are not however easily recognised, unless through effective teaching. In the reading process, the learner must learn the fundamentals of reading comprehension, which serves as the key concept in reading. There is a need for the learner to grasp the context, sequence, and characters of the piece of reading material, which he/she currently engages in. This need must be ensured by the teacher in the teaching-learning process. Teaching how to read involves enabling the learner to get the clear idea of the meaning of the text alongside its theme or idea. Without the full grasp of this, the learner fails to establish a good understanding of the text, which in turn affects the meaning of why he/she does reading in the first place. Fluency is an important aspect in teaching how to read, albeit its rather difficult task to accomplish this. However, fluency in reading is the key that enables the reader to understand completely, quickly, and expressively what he has read along with good comprehension. Effective instruction in fluency leads to overall improvements in reading, which is reached through accuracy in word recognition, assisted reading, and synergistic instructional routines (Rasinski, 2005). Parents must be aware of incorporating teaching into their children’s daily lives, which would then be enhanced in the classroom. The five essential components that beginning readers use must be emphasised well, which include knowledge of alphabet, phonological awareness, oral reading fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (Rasinski, 2005). These are likewise the same areas that the Reading teacher must focus on in order to teach the child effectively. It is often said that had reading come naturally, teaching would be much easier. But reading must be taught and does not come just naturally and teachers must give students the chance to practice the skill. Good teachers are so important because in their hands lie the realisation of reading acquisition of many children. Theories and Models of the Reading Process This paper posits that the main principles of effective practice in the teaching and assessment of reading are (1) attention to minor aspects of reading, which involves letters and individual words (2) understanding of whole meanings in order to make reading enjoyable, (3) application of relevant models/theories in the reading process. Currently, there is a new debate on how the teaching of reading can best take place, which is focused on teaching through a bottom-up manner, while the other camp is through top-down approach. The first is concerned with teaching children to first decipher words or parts thereof and putting them together to make meaning, while the second is concerned with teaching children on meaningful units of language and only later have them focused on the individual elements involved in these units (Wray, 1989). The new element about reading is currently on the concern about top-down approaches, which is a deductive way of learning how to read. This is done through a meaning-getting process in which materials considered worth reading are read by the child and he/she is aided by an adult –either a parent or a teacher – thereby making the process easy for the child (Wray, 1989). It is likewise inferred that children try to make sense of what they are doing through analysis of their reading errors or miscues from which evidence is produced. An inside-out theory of the reading process is established by Goodman and Smith (Carbourne, 1979 in Wray, 1989). The theory states that the act of reading starts from the reader’s mind with corresponding expectations about the material being read. The reader engages in a test of this expectation by making a sampling of some portions, which either confirms or rejects these expectations. This sampling becomes a basis for which the reader engenders fresh expectations and this interactive way is where the process proceeds. This theory is opposed by Cambourne through his outside-in theories, stating that meaning resides purely on the page and the reader’s task is to decode this meaning contained in symbols into spoken language (Wray, 1989). The psycholinguistic emphasis on reading paves way to a good deal of writing about particular teaching techniques focused on predictive and interactive process alongside the awareness that this kind of teaching using materials meaningful to children enables them to read and learn better. It is likewise inferred that spoken language may be used for teaching reading through the language experience approach (Ashton-Warner, 1963 in Wray, 1989). The focus of this approach begins with language and becomes meaningful when accompanied by experience. This focus allows for surface manifestations as words to be read and written afterwards. Another reading approach deals with the pursuit of educational publishers on “Shared Book,” which involves the use of Big Books through which teachers can lead students towards attention of words and sentences. Children also read according to their appropriate developing expertise but are aligned with their great deal of say (Moon, 1986 in Wray, 1989). Story Method is likewise advocated for the development of children’s ability to read, which is set “according to reading skills within a context of meaning” (Moyle, 1982 in Wray, 1989, p. 5). This method begins with reading a story to children until they are fully acquainted to them and read these stories themselves with expectations of success. Their focus on subsequent parts of the books enables them to develop generalisations, which can serve basis in their application to other books and other reading tasks. A competent, sympathetic adult can lead children who cannot read for themselves to practice reading and become competent themselves with the task, called apprenticeship approach (Waterland, 1985, in Wray, 1989). The apprenticeship approach coincides with the guided reading approach, which is the focus of this paper in order for the child to acquire reading skills. The emerging concept of the involvement of parents in the teaching of reading is aligned with the movement towards meaning-based approaches, which influence each other and provides a definite shift in emphasis. The “Whole Language” approach involves all the language arts including reading and writing, which are treated as one and are developed together in meaningful situations through hierarchical, skill-based model (Goodman, 1986 in Wray, 1989). Since it is a given fact that reading is accomplished best when done through stories, the Whole Language Approach is thus characterised by immersing children in stories. It is however argued that the over-emphasis on the psycholinguistic invasion as a cueing system in reading is not helpful to children who do not possess a large background of word knowledge as fluent readers (Stott, 1981 in Wray, 1989). He furthers that phonics is not just drills and rules but may be involved in the teaching of reading through the phonic method. In the guided reading, the teacher or parent can stress this aspect to the child. These theories and approaches in reading are evaluated tentatively with partiality to meaning-based approaches. This is supported by studies conducted on the same subject, in which it is argued that readers tend to give more attention to meaning rather than to surface representations. Studies done on young readers show that they appear to make sense of their reading when they read, supporting the same claim. Several studies on emergent readers indicate that young children engaged in a literate environment absorb lessons about the nature and functions of print, which enables the conveyance of meaning (Hall, 1987). These approaches to reading thus imply that children are pulled away from what they instinctively do with reading when they are taught the surface representations of a particular reading material rather than drawing meaning from the texts. According to Soler and Openshaw (2007), there is currently intense interest on which particular methods of teaching reading must be employed for early literacy, and several methods focus on phonics and whole language approach. There are debates about the usage of phonics in early reading instruction, which currently thrives in most English-speaking countries. It is also posited that the teaching of reading arises as a social activity shaped by historical, environmental, and social concerns, allowing children to relate to stories being read to them or those that they read personally. This line supports the importance of storybooks as effective materials for reading since a child familiarizes with the environment that he is in, alongside being able to relate to these stories themselves. Meanwhile, the simple view of reading (SVR) model is an abstract framework used for understanding reading comprehension through either global linguistic comprehension and word-reading abilities. Kirby and Savage (2008) state that SVR is not a full theory of reading nor is it a blueprint for instruction. However, the model is described as effective in planning for teaching reading. Variations of the effects of these models among students of various age ranges imply that it provides a good fit to scientific data in terms of typical and atypical development (ibid). How the Personal Perspective on Guided Reading Relates to Theoretical Models of Reading This paper views that drawing upon meaning is very important in aiding a child to read, which is particularly related to the child’s wealth of experiences. The child is able to learn easily when he/she is aided by an understanding and competent adult like a mother, a teacher, or an older sibling or relative whose immediate emphasis is on the creation of meaning. I personally believe that even an adult who reads eloquently would not give sufficient interest in texts which he/she cannot draw meaning upon, making it clear that the same is certainly not appreciated by a child. There is thus a necessity that in guided reading, the adult must emphasise the creation of meaning in texts in order for it to become enjoyable and relevant for the child. Meaning is very important in that the child should seek enjoyment in the reading task in order to make him appreciate the activity and not consider it as a burden or a task at all. It is at this point that a competent teacher who is committed to the teaching task must aid the child to make realise this point. Effective teaching must be the primary aim of every educator - one that is focused on psycholinguistic approach on reading – of which the main emphasis of most theories and models are emphasised. The underlying concepts behind a child’s learning is best achieved by drawing upon his experiences through relevant stories, indicating that a structural approach is not the appropriate approach at all. Though such is likewise important, it will come after the skill of drawing out meanings in texts, making the reading process a relevant and viable experience for each child. Since a child can better learn through guided reading, the teacher or parent is able to draw meaning to him/her through various flexible approaches and methods best employed in the assessment of the child’s reading ability and paces seen in guided reading. The combination of phonics through spoken language and meaning-based approach allows for the guided reading to be a meaningful experience for the child. His understanding is checked by the teacher or parent from time to time, and leaves him for certain phases in which he can decipher phrases and sentences alone without the aid of an adult. This way, the child improves on his reading skills and is enlightened on certain concepts unknown to him through the guide. The guided reading activity paves way towards escalating to higher strategies of reading like independent reading. It is thus important that in this stage, the child’s reading is incorporated with particular models or theories relevant to make it properly directed. The guided reading is supported by the theory suggesting that children try to make sense of what they do through analysis of their reading errors or miscues from which evidence is produced (Wray, 1989). The story method is the most applicable method utilised in guided reading, which often begins with reading a story to children until they are fully acquainted to them and makes them read these stories themselves alongside expectations of success. The development of generalizations serves basis of other reading tasks (Waterland, 1985, in Wray, 1989). Justifying the Perspective It is important that a child adopt learning through his environment in order to understand fully what he is reading. This is aligned with the notion of psycholingual approach to learning demonstrated by Wray. The psycholingual approach examines what is found in the child’s environment and deduces it through language and phonics, making the reading experience more meaningful. Colleges in New Zealand tighten centralised control in colleges becoming strongholds of the whole language philosophy, which is aligned to this perspective (Soler and Openshaw, 2007). The greatest contribution of the cognitive science to the teaching of reading is so immense, and one of this is the established fact that phonological awareness is related to reading (Stahl and McKenna, 2000). This accounts to the point that the usage of phonics must not be put to exclusive domain of the spoken language alone, but also in the reading domain as well. This fact calls for the state adoption of required instruction in reading textbooks in Texas employing phonological awareness alongside vocabulary and comprehension strategies (ibid). Gray, et al. (2007) support the linguistic phonics approach on young children’s reading, which differs from traditional phonics program. It focuses not on making children look at letters and speculate on the sounds they make, but on the sounds and oral language skills until they use it with the written word. The key concept in the approach is that children are able o draw associations between spoken language and the written language. It suggests that the linguistic phonics approach raises standards and the benefits obtained by children through this approach are sustained over time (Gray et al., 2007). It follows that thorough knowledge of letters, spelling patterns, and words is inevitably important to the acquisition of skillful reading. This is the goal that a good phonic instruction pushes through. It may be inferred that there are several models and modified approaches designed involving phonics designed to enhance its usage on the reading-learning process. The phonics-related approaches discussed in this paper prove a vast attention given to improving reading through its usage, alongside improving teaching through it. An evidence-based practice of using phonics is demonstrated by a seven-year longitudinal Clackmannshire study in Scotland, which points to synthetic phonics as a vital part in the early reading process (Rose, 2006). The findings indicated in the study observe examples of approach to teaching phonics in P1 (R1 in England). It is likewise inferred that the reading task may be enhanced by holding discussions with head teachers, teachers, and members of Clackmannshire Council and the author of the research (ibid). The importance of developing language and incorporating it to reading is supported by how brain imaging offers a new technology for children’s acquisition of reading. The neural architecture, which is so vast and extensive, supports efficient reading, which serves as basis to complex developmental processes underpinning the acquisition of literacy among children (Goswami, 2008). Recent studies on literacy and reading acquisitions show mutual interdependency between spelling and sounds, making educators infer that the process of language acquisition and acquiring the ability to read are interrelated. The Links Between Effective Assessment, Planning, Teaching and Learning In Reading Curriculum planning is an essential phase in the teaching process whereby goals and objectives in reading are set and are purported to be achieved. Teachers need to plan their curriculum based on the grade level and associated domain level of the child. They should plan together to provide consistency of the reading curriculum, reflecting he stages of teaching reading and students’ corresponding backgrounds in reading. It is said that curriculum planning and practice shows students’ achievements in terms of stages of reading and student backgrounds and perspectives. In the transformative level, curriculum planning is geared towards analysing and addressing the full range of learning needs in reading and aims to provide coherence, balance, and continuity (Wray, 1989). The students’ assessment of the reading process is based on curriculum planning, and the particular method/approach employed in this process determines how assessment is to be conducted. Necessary knowledge and skills must be utilised in monitoring and managing students’ learning. Related activities designed to build phonological awareness are shown to make children to fully engage in developing this awareness within a broad and language-rich curriculum (Rose, 2006). The Role of information Texts and Non-Print Media in the Reading Process In today’s realm where students are surrounded by visual, electronic, and digital texts referred to as multimodal, discussions of the textual shift are focused on. The changing learning environment calls for new theories of literacy and new pedagogies in order to respond to this. The reading process is thus considered within thins changing context. Multimodal texts use the incorporation of spoken or written language, sound, still or moving images, as well as utilise either paper or electronic screen. Some of the multimodal texts, which children encounter in this emerging mode, are picture books, information books, newspapers, and magazines. In non-print form, classrooms use films, video, email, CD ROMs, or DVDs. This non-print usage in the teaching of reading is aligned with the new emerging technologies of the current times. There are differences in the way reading printed materials and non-print media are facilitated to a child. A child who reads a picture book needs processing of the message in words, picture, graphics, and images (Walsh, 2004). On the other hand, a combination of movement and sound is added to a non-print material using electronic or digital screen. The child who is exposed to this new trend in reading must be guided with new methods and approaches whereby a teacher or parent cannot solely rely on approaches utilised when reading a picture book or an information book. Drama and interaction help in effective assessment, teaching, and learning in reading because they provide environmental basis to which a child is supported in his reading progress. As already articulated by Wray (1989), the importance of the environment and experiential events as themes of a reading material contribute to a child’s enhancement of the reading task. This is exemplified by the huge importance given to storybooks and picture books designed to enhance a child’s language familiarity and reading skills through things and concepts he already found in his environment. Watching drama enhances the visual skills of the child, alongside hearing phonetic sounds that he later incorporates in his reading tasks. The aid of some adults like a teacher or a parent contributes to the creation of new meanings in a child in terms of these aspects. How Particular Pedagogic Approaches Support Development of Guided Reading The Balanced Reading Approach supports the development of guided reading in its provision of offering an alternative to the extremes of pure phonics or whole language through effective combination of instructional approaches and accommodating different learning styles (Stoicheva, 1999). This approach is utilised through a combination of while language and phonics approaches with its acknowledgement of the development of awareness of individual sounds and cueing strategies. The phonic instruction benefits the analytic and auditory students, while those with tactile and global learning styles tend to benefit from whole language approach. Different approaches are required in the different stages of reading acquisition, especially during the spelling-sound cue wherein phonics instruction is especially crucial (Raven 1997, in Stoicheva, 1999). The Balanced Reading Approach supports the notion that “the heart of a powerful reading program is the relationship between explicit, systematic skills instruction and literature, language and comprehension” (California Department of Education, 1995, in Stoicheva, 1999). It only indicates that guided reading may utilise this approach to enable the child learn how to read more effectively through the incorporation of needed concepts. Similarly, this approach is described as one that combines language and literature-rich activities alongside teaching of skills intended to decode words. The approach focuses not only on reading but also on literacy, which is likewise the method viewed as essential in this paper in obtaining effective reading skills through guided reading. The importance of teaching reading is relevant to the Rose Report which states that particular nationally urgent concerns are found about the comparatively weak performance of the 15 percent of children who failed to reach the target level for their age in reading by the end of Key Stage 1. The same urgent concerns are also exhibited to those who have not reached the same by the end of Key Stage 2 (Rose, 2006). For Key stage 1 (7 years of age), around 85, 000 children did not reach their target age in reading, while 95, 000 is recorded for Key Stage 2. There is likewise a generally weaker performance of boys as compared to girls generated in this report. The Primary National Strategy (2007) explains how schools can utilise Primary Framework in informing and guiding professionals’ development in a pursuit to improve learning and teaching. The framework focuses on the role of senior leaders, who hold the key to success in the attainment of school-centered excellence. Analysis and self-review, professional support, collaborative development of improvements in classroom practice, and evaluation are key phases in teaching reading. The school is tasked to allow each child improve on their reading skills and reduce the gap between attainment in reading and writing. Along with this concern is the issue about addressing cases of underperformance (Primary National Strategy, 2006). In order to do this, teachers employ the strategy of reading aloud to enable children to become familiar with the usage of the English language. Conclusion Reading is an activity that every child must improve skills on, and educators must focus on different strategies in order for the child to enhance his reading skills. This paper claims that the main principles of effective practice in the teaching and assessment of reading are involves attention to minor aspects of reading such as letters and individual words, understanding the whole meanings of the text, and application of relevant models/theories in the reading process. Guided reading is an effective reading strategy that enables teachers and parents to achieve this goal for the child, which is likewise supported by different models and theories. The Balanced Reading Approach is the specific approach that may be employed in guided reading through effective combination of instructional approaches and accommodating different learning styles. 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