How Children Learn the Sounds of Their Language - Essay Example

Children acquire the sounds of their language from the pre-linguistic stage itself. This process refers to the natural assimilation of sounds. This involves a sort of intuition. Phonological development in children has been an interesting topic of study for years. The real interactions between people around make him an active participant in the process of acquiring the sounds of that particular language. From birth, with the first step of phonological development, that is crying, their growth to the abstract perceptions is slow but sure. What is dealt with in this essay is the specific topic how children acquire sounds of their language. The search is gone in the right course in the light of some significant theories on phonological development and language acquisition. Interrogation leading to further study also is its feature. Table of Content Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3 Stages of Phonological Development………………………………………………………………………………………..4 Theories of phonological development……………………………………………………………………………………..7 Factors support and dispirit phonological development…………………………………………………………...10 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….14 List of References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15 How do Children Acquire Sound. Introduction To add to the natural flavor of my search on phonological development in children I start with my own observations of the acquisition of sounds by children. The child’s cry is the first sound that invites others’ attention to his or her world. An infant communicates all its needs to its near ones through crying and making meaningless utterances. These sounds produced by children to express one or the other need, are a part of phonological development. There are a lot of theories on acquisition of sound. In the light of these theories, an in depth investigation of the topic is quite interesting. When we listen to an unfamiliar language the feeling we get out of it is that of a strange confusion, a sort of chaos. The reason behind this is simple but worth investigation. What we are exposed to from the birth itself counts a lot. In the case of language development also it is true. When a child listens to his dear and near ones, in a monolingual or bilingual atmosphere, his language acquisition begins with the primary phonological development. According to the widely accepted theories like Innate Theory by Noam Chomsky language acquisition is a sort of behavior. Adult assistance in a perfectly natural method is necessary to encourage phonological development. That is language should be used by adults for the children to get the exposure to it. The basic language skills are to be acquired in the right order. It is mandatory that the children should get maximum exposure to the receptive skills listening and reading as the productive skills speaking and writing are developed by the firstly mentioned two. Among these four skills of language the first one is listening, followed by speaking, reading and writing. So, it is obligatory that the children should get enough chances to listen the language. The scaffolding needed in the phonological development of children should be provided with during the early ages itself. Such an access to language helps in the acquisition of the phonological system of that language. This essay concentrates on the stages of phonological development, the theories related to and the factors encouraging and discouraging phonological acquisition. Stages of Phonological Development. It is doubtless that human brain is the abode of language, Anandan (2006). So, naturally children can acquire the sounds of their language. Following are the stages of phonological development which are worth for a close examination. Being acquainted with all these observations the phonological development in children is not a tough topic of study. Pre-linguistic stage Language is innate for human beings, Anandan (2006). During pre-linguistic stage, experimentation, though not conscious, starts with meaningless utterances of sound. During this stage, a child starts to experiment with sounds of language. It is wonderful that at this stage itself the child can discriminate between very similar speech sounds. This is lost step by step as a child gets exposed to his/her own native language. Here the easy access is to the native language usage which is easy and in close proximity to him. Pre-linguistic stage is 0 to 1 year. Reflective vocalizations, cooing, vocal play, babbling and variegated babbling are the features of pre-linguistic stage. Here the child pays little conscious attention to the sound he produces, but the situations are noteworthy, Gleason (1961). Stage of first words Stage of first words is when the child is one year and six months. The child gets the capability to utter new words naturally. It happens because language is a biologically triggered behaviour, Anandan (2006). Chomskian model linguistics states that language is innate for human beings. Language can be treated naturally like other behaviours as walking, Aitcheson(1967).The phonological behaviour of the child during the stage of first words strongly supports the above mentioned theoretician’s view. Whole word strategy, unanalysed wholes and progressive idioms are characteristics of this particular stage of phonological development. Stage of Phonemic Development Stage of Phonemic Development starts with the end of stage of first words and it is up to four years of age. The child starts to stick to the rule governed strategy here. Different from the speech utterances devoid of logic, meaning and sense adorn the cluster of sounds they produce and linguistic codes that can be decoded easily are produced. This aptitude is materialised with an innate language system, Anandan (2006). Generally it is believed that a child gets a fifty word vocabulary capacity at this stage. Instead of mere jumble of sounds, meaningful sentences are produced by the child at this stage. Stabilization. This starts from four years of age. Acquisition of later sounds is the speciality of this stage. During this period child is acquainted with more complicated phonological combinations that can be understood so clearly by the listener. Child’s learning of communication is through tools such as exposure, repetition, modelling, and imitation, Paul (2001). The exposure to the atmosphere in which the same language is used by everyone boost up the ability of the child to acquire that language. Repetition is not in the literal sense of that word; it is a form of recurrence. More clearly, natural repetition of sound clusters which form words in natural contexts. Modelling, as the word directly indicates, is following the model of the speech community the child belongs to. Imitation also is in a natural sense, not something made by mechanic reproduction. Different from the monolingual phonological development, researches stick to the argument that bilingual systems are produced in the bilingual children, Goldstein and Fabiano (2007).What affect the acquisition of different phonological systems is the nature of language the child is exposed to, Thordardottir,( 2005). Difference between Child and Adult pronunciation For a discussion in this perspective a glance at the phonological process in child language is necessary. The major steps are followed: Substitutions Stopping, fronting and gliding are the phonological processes come under the title substitutions. Example for stopping: ‘Funny’ is pronounced as ‘punny.’ The fricative consonant ‘f’ is replaced by the stop consonant ‘p’ in this. Fronting can be velar or palatal. Velar fronting can be explained with the following example; ‘kiss’ is pronounced as ‘tiss’. Here, the velar consonant normally made by the middle of the tongue in contact with the palate towards the back of the mouth is replaced with the consonant produced at the front of the mouth. That ifs /k/ is replaced by /t/. Palatal fronting is explained here with an example; The fricative consonant ‘sh’ in ‘ship’ is the fricative sound /s/ that is made further forward on the palate. Gliding can be explained with the following example; The liquid consonant /l/ is replaced by /w/. For instance, ‘real’ is pronounced as ‘weal’. Assimilations Consonant harmony is to be elucidated under this title. Children pronounce the words glass and drink as glagg and krink. These odd sounding words are examples for consonant harmony. Syllable Structure Processes Cluster reduction, final consonant deletion, deletion of unstressed syllables and reduplication come under this title. Theories of phonological development. Jacobson’s Theory on Phonological Universals Jacobean theory holds that infants tend to acquire not individual sounds but categories of sounds which constitute phonemic contrasts acquired by children. Theory on phonological universal emphasises on the sequence in which sound categories are essential. Children acquire common sounds in world languages early and rare ones comparatively later. Subdivision of vowels and consonants based on features follows this. This order has been classified into three distinctions as follows: Oral verses Nasal, Labial verses Dental, and Stops verses Fricatives, (Ingram 2008). Problem-Solving Theory Adult forms and child pronunciation are observed in this theory adopting basic approach of substitution, additions, and deletion of speech sounds. The approach highlight the difficulties child faces in producing the complex utterances. Since infants have limited repertoire of sounds, adoption of a number of processes are necessary to make the pronunciation of difficult words easier. Processes such as substitution are therefore common in infants, Menn (1981). Deletion is common in child utterances by leaving consonant clusters, omitting final consonants, and neglecting unstressed syllables. Adding vowels to the adult speech production is common in children. This substitution process is no longer used when they gain the capacity to use language clearly. Phonological development is basically self-learning process since pronunciation errors are rarely corrected in children Menn (1981). Some Pre-Chomskian Assumptions on phonological development There are many such assumptions on language acquisition. A close examination of Chomskian assumption on acquisition of sound by children put adjacent to a few others will help to know about phonological development in children precisely. The bellow discussed theories are not in use in their practical sense now. But a reading of these will add to the knowledge of phonological development in children. Empiricist Assumptions John Locke can be considered as the first among great English empiricists. He determines the limit of human understanding in his works, John Locke (1689). His argument is that child’s phonological and language development is not innate. He adds that human mind is a Tabula Rasa in which experience is written. He argues that ideas are the materials of all knowledge and these ideas are absolutely based on experiences. Idea is ‘Whatsoever is the object of the Understanding when a man thinks.’ John Locke (1689). What Noam Chomsky states is just the reverse of it. That makes Chomsky’s theory widely accepted. A reader of Chomsky is reminded of the real life experiences in connection with phonological development in children he is getting from his dealings with them. Structuralist Assumptions on Phonological Development Ferdinand de Saussure, the originator of twentieth century structuralism focused on the underlying system of language, not the use of language Saussure(1960). He argued that linguistic signs are composed of signifier, the sound pattern of a word, and signified, the concept or meaning of the word. Internal constitution of signs is his focus. He argued that language is something that could be analysed and studied by. Saussure’s view is different from Chomskian perspective of phonological acquisition. Chomsky’s Innateness Theory The inquiry of this theory is on innate structure of mind. Noam Chomsky introduced this theory. Process of acquisition cannot be separated from nature of knowledge of language, Cook (1996). This talks of the innateness of phonological development. Here language is treated as behaviour itself. Language learnability issues are applicable to the domain of phonology, Archibald, (1995).Noam Chomsky’s developmental Psycholinguistics deals with first language acquisition of children. According to this theory, in pre-linguistic stage itself acquisition of language through phonological perception begins, Anandan(2006).Chomsky’s Innate Hypothesis is based on the observation of many unquestionable facts in relation to language acquisition. Chomsky elucidates that all children, regardless of I.Q. level acquire language. The instances he has taken for it is from day to day life. Acquisition takes place without any effort and in a moderately short period of time. Formal teaching is not needed for phonological perception. The complex system, language is discovered by the children from a small unsystematic amount of data. Very little imitation is involved in the development language and it is an active process involving mental computation. It is from such observations mentioned by now, Chomsky reached the conclusion that infants are born with the area called Language Acquisition Device in their brain. As a part of the studies conducted throughout the years it is said that this Language Acquisition Device can be activated in child irrespective of his community. In spite of the fact that the specific position of this particular area cannot be indicated, it is a widely accepted theory in relation with the process of acquisition today. Though it cannot be pinpointed, it is generally presumed that it exists through the neurological networks in the brain. Chomsky opines that exposure is all that is necessary for a child’s phonological and language acquisition, Anandan (2006). Factors Support and Dispirit Phonological Acquisition. Phonological acquisition is not a cognisant process. It is not possible to pre-decide what is to be acquired and what not to. But there are different factors deciding the pace of acquisition. Some of these support and add to the process of acquisition. Obviously the positive environment is the most important. ‘Language acquisition takes place in a predictable way as if the process is tuned in accordance with a biological clock ticking inside’,Anandan( 2006). But the quality of the exposure should be ensured as the wrong directions, though not conscious will lead the children away from phonological development in its required sense. In the estimation of Chomsky, Pinker and many other linguists claim that what matters is the quality of the input, not the quantity, Anandan (2006). There are many factors cause delay in phonological acquisition, which is not necessarily deliberately created. Lack of promising surrounding is the most important among these. Children’s speech may be difficult for the adult to be comprehended sometimes. If they are not encouraged in the proper manner phonological acquisition may be delayed. Some children who speak quite well may be unable to follow instructions. There are incidences when a child is not able to sound and is unable to vocalise. Several signs are pointer to language development problem in a child, (Nelson 2010). Clark (2009) , closely examines when and where children acquire a first language. The author states that babies are not born talking; they learn language starting immediately from birth. They need sounds, words, meanings and constructions. The problems related to first language acquisition also are stated here, ‘When children learn first language they could build on pre-existing notions of what to represent with language as well as prior notions of communication.’, Clark(2009). According to the author properties of different languages are not same. This affects process of acquisition, Clark (2009).This may cause delay in phonological development. Author discusses John Lock’s theory of Tabula Rasa here. Tabula Rasa is an epistemological theory which states that the individuals are not born with the built-in mental content and their knowledge comes from experience and perception. The differences between empiricist and cognitive assumptions on phonological development are echoed in the questions which are put forward. Clark (2009), asserts that children are not born with the capacity to talk and they should learn language. Though the innate theory of Chomsky also answers this question by saying that language is a biologically triggered behaviour, this can be taken for further discussions and study. The languages are not originated from the identical patterns and this causes the difference in acquisition too. Languages differ in many properties like syntax, morphology, and phonology. Because of this the acquisition of one language cannot be the same as the acquisition of another. On this aspect of language studies have been conductedBy Houwer. Bilingual First language Acquisition is the development of language children are exposed to from their birth onwards. Family is presented as the primary setting in which children get the exposure to two languages. In such an atmosphere Bilingual First Language Acquisition takes place, Houwer,( 2009). Speech and language problems differ from each other. Though pronunciation is not a problem for some children coining of meaningful sentences appears difficult for them. Some others are there who may find difficulties in the reverse order. Following instructions may be the difficulty of some others. There are incidences when a child does not respond to sound and is unable to vocalise. Several signs are pointer to language development problem in a child, Nelson (2010). When a child cannot communicate properly right measures are to be taken to solve that. To assist the children in phonological and language development knowledge problems is a must. Here are some of the warning signs of child’s delay in language development. Failure to use gestures like pointing or waving, preferring gestures over vocalisation to communicate by 18 months, problems in imitating sounds by 18 months and difficulty in understanding simple verbal requests. Oral impairments like problems with tongue or palate and short fraenulum which limit tongue movement for speech production also give way to delay in the result of phonological acquisition. Hearing problems also have been associated with delayed speech since a child who has difficulty in hearing may have trouble in articulating, understanding, imitating, and using language, Mukherjee (2010). As indicated above, remedial measures are very important in the case of delay in acquisition. Intervention measures are so helpful for such a child. Most of the intervention measures are practicable at home itself. The reason behind it is most of the speech problems have communication environment as base. Talking to the child in infancy using any of the discourses will add to the ability of the child to acquire language. Gestures also play a very important role in this. As the child is not able to get the meaning of what is uttered non verbal communication like gestures will help them. Identification of objects can be made easier for a small child of six months by reading books with pictures for them. Such a visual-verbal blend will help them considerably. Apart from telling stories by providing rich exposure to language in natural situations will help the children. Explanation of the given activity, reading for example, is very important. In adverse conditions, it is necessary to consult a speech-language pathologist Pollitt, (2011). While phonological development occurs as an absolutely natural growth process in infants and children, its full realisation may be boosted just as any other developmental process. There are various ways in which speech and language development in children may be encouraged. These activities are not alike in infants and children. Children below age of two may be encouraged to make vowel-like sounds and consonant-vowel sound. Other activities may include reinforcing attempts by maintaining eye contact, imitating a child’s laughter and facial expressions. Baby is taught how to imitate actions like clapping hands, and use of gestures to convey meaning, Bolton (2008). In the case of children above two years, speech enhancement can be achieved by using comprehensible speech, repeating what a child says to indicate concurrence, mixing baby talk and adult words, and using scrapbook to guide a child’s actions. Use of simple discourses also is very important in this case. Encouragement and motivation is necessary in the initial stage of a child’s phonological development. Introduction of new words followed by the explanation of meaning also will be helpful for children. Such measures substantially improve the phonological development of a child, (Bolton 2008). The one who wants the child to acquire language should give him ample appreciation and motivation. His progress in language acquisition must be valued properly and they should be made to recognize that they are going through a process that is so dynamic. But this should not be artificial. Conclusion It is evident from the paper that phonological development in children has got various steps, which are equally important. Though the capacity to acquire a language is innate, an assistance and scaffolding are necessary for the children. The discussion highlights the point that as the children are not born talking, they should learn the language. This is actually cannot be called learning, but acquisition of language; learning is artificial and conscious, but acquisition is natural and it is a biologically triggered behaviour. This behaviour is being modified every minute. This modification is done naturally with the exposure they get around them to acquire language. The discussion on the delayed speech and factors influencing phonological development sounds very significant. As communication is the pedestal of life such a study of phonological development is very constructive and ever relevant. The discussion on phonological development cannot be paused anywhere as it has a lot of interrogative dimensions. The theories mentioned in this paper indicate the role of phonological development in the cognitive expansion of the children. Verbal communication, which is the possession of human beings only, has a pivotal role in the overall development of them. It is communication that unfastens the ties which deny entrance to the world of knowledge and all that is obligatory in human life. So, such a study that leads to further interrogations is extremely promising. It ensures an open ended realm of opportunities. The foundation of the future achievements of a child should be laid in the infancy itself. The motivation given and the remedial measures taken in connection with phonological development of a child is prominent of that sort. List of References .Anandan, K.N. (2006). Tuition to Intuition [July, 2006], Transcend, Tanur Gleason,H.A.(1968) . An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics, Oxford and IBH, Janpath Abrams, M.H. (2000). A Glossary of Literary Terms, Harcourt Asia, Singapore. Nair, G.H.C. (2006) English Language learning, Approach and Practice. (2007 August) Bolton, C. (2008). Toddler Language Development Tips: How to Encourage Children’s First Words. [March 31, 2011] Cutajar, M. (2010). Phonological Development in Children. [March 31, 2011] Menn, L. (1981). Theories of Phonological Development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 379, pp 130-137. Doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.tb42003.x Nelson, A. (2010). Delayed Speech of Language Development. [Online] [March 31, 2011] Pollitt, L. (2011). Encouraging Children’s Language Development. [Online] Clark,Eve V.(2009) First Language Acquisition, University Press, Cambridge. Houwer Annick De. (2009) An Introduction to Bilingual Development, Multilingual Matters. Hume, David. ( 1902) An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Oxford University Press, New York. Radford,A.(1990) The Syntax of Questions in Child English, Journal of Child Language Bickerton,Derek(1966b), Language and Human Behaviour, UCL Press, London. Locke, J,(1983), Phonological Acquisition and Change, Academic Press, New York Ingram,D(1989)First Language Acquisition, Metho, Description and Explanation. Cambridge University Press, New York. Krashen S. (1985b) Language Acquisition and Language Education,Almany Press. Paul, R. (2001). Language Disorders from Infancy through Adolescence: Assessment and Intervention. (2nd ed). St Louis, MO: Mosby. [March 31, 2011] Nelson, A. (2010). Delayed Speech of Language Development. 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