Civic Achievement Gap in a Southeastern Urban School - Literature review Example

A Grounded Theory Study of the Civic Achievement Gap in a Southeastern Urban School District Lecturer’s Introduction One of the most explosive and serious issues in the United States is the disparity of the civic achievement gap between the culturally and linguistically diverse students in the country (Jeynes, 2012). If the recent level of educational achievement continues, a number of American students i.e. poor African Americans, native Americans, Asians and Hispanic Americans will not obtain the necessary educational that is essential for the students full participation in the civic and economic life in the country. The civic achievement gap between the lower and a higher social economic status student is likely to make the social stability of the country to be increasingly doubtful (Meira Levinson, 2007). Social studies educators are facing challenges on the No Child Left Behind Act passed in 2001 (NCLB). The reason of the act was to close the achievement gap among all the students i.e. the higher and lower social economic status students regardless of their race, socioeconomic status or their physical disabilities (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Before the act, schools were already worried on how they would bridge the civic educational achievement gap among the students especially the minority groups in America like the black Americans. Most of the social studies educators realize and recognize the indictment of the wide civic achievement gaps among the students groups (Rubin, Hayes, & Benson, 2009). Progress in reducing the civic achievement disparity especially in academic achievements started in 1early 1970s but the efforts stalled in the 1990s. As a result, elements of disparity remain between the academic successes of minority groups (poor African Americans, Native Americans, Asians and Hispanic Americans) versus the European Americans (Desimone & Long, 2010). The civic achievement gap between the lower and higher social economic status students is evident more in grades, tests, course selection and the students graduation rates (Chambers, 2009). Approximately 46 percent of the students most of them from lower social economic status levels or more do not graduate every year especially in institutions that are located in western and northern cities and as well in the southern states of United States (McKinsey Company, 2009). This adds to the number of students who leave high school or graduate not fully prepared to fully participate in civic life. The only solution of closing the civic educational gap is provision of a high school education followed by post-secondary school and training. However, differences in races, income disparities, socioeconomic backgrounds and other demographic variables continue to increase the civic achievement gap between the lower and higher social economic status students (Meira Levinson, 2007). Achievement gap There is a need to build a data driven educational framework to encourage academic educational growth for all the students. Before building the framework social studies educators need to examine the factors that affect the student’s achievement (Stephens, Hamedani, & Destin, 2014). According to Akiba, LeTendre and Scribner, (2007), the teachers, school and the students factors are the factors that affect the students achievements. These factors entail safe and orderly learning environments, socio-economic status and the institutional strategies. The academic performance of the minority students has been found to be better in schools that have more minority teachers (Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006). According to Hanushek & Rivkin, (2006), minority students in the united states such as the black Americans tend to perform better when they are taught by teachers of their own background or social ethic group and has a societal and moral implication. In the diverse society, it is important that all students from different socio ethnic backgrounds to interact with individuals from different ethnic, cultural, racial and linguistic backgrounds (Rumberger & Palardy, 2005). It has been proven that majority of the students will benefit from well-trained teachers with similar linguistic and ethnic backgrounds with the students. This is because the teachers contribute to the student’s sense of belonging and as well to their academic achievement. This is essential in bridging the civic educational gap between the lower and higher social economic students (Kahne & Middaugh, 2008). Evidence of the civic achievement gap A study done by Reardon, (2011) in Pasadena Unified School District to identify the racial gap on students. The institution district student’s body was made up of 80 percent of the minority group that is the black and Hispanic students. The student body was poorer and socio-economically disadvantaged. Information was collected from the reading and the math’s test score of each student. Additional information was then collected regarding the student’s background and their family characteristics such as the family structure, language fluency, socio-economic status and family characteristics. Other information was collected on the school and the teachers credential. The results of the study indicated that the civic achievement gap widens and gets larger throughout the elementary grades into the middle and high school (Reardon, 2011). Factors contributing to the civic achievement gap include the enrollment of the minority groups in lower quality schools, the changing importance of strategies used in parenting versus the strategies utilized in schools and inconsistence of the test that potentially favors the higher social economic status students (M Levinson, 2007). Ladson-Billings, (2006) analyzed students from the minority lower social economic status in elementary schools that had more than 99 percent of the minority blacks. The study determined the trends in the civic achievement gap between desegregated and resegregated schools in the city of Virginia as well as analyzed science scores and mathematics scores from standards of learning tests (Ladson-Billings, 2006). The study results indicated that the civic achievement gap was greater in resegregated schools than in integrated schools. However, there an increased achievement gap in mathematics and science scores in both schools (Meira Levinson, 2010). Hanushek and Rivkin, (2006) Studied the differences in the academic performance that existed between the lower social economic status students and their counterparts in the schools serving a majority of students from low income families contrasting with the higher social economic status students. According to the finding, the gap was found that it can be closed and the education of the lower SES students with strong leadership, strong community support as well as involving quality teachers in the educational systems. For the civic achievement gap to be narrowed, the state and local governing bodies needs to be involved in enhancing the implementation of policies and curriculums to align with standards supporting closing of the achievement gap (Garandeau, Ahn, & Rodkin, 2011). Research Studies that Discuss the Achievement Gap Ellison and Swanson, (2010) conducted a study to determine the factors that contribute to the civic achievement gap between the lower and higher SES students. i.e. language fluency, socio economic status and family background. The study involved the minority groups such as black Americans, recent immigrants and Latino Americans. The study involved 1,147 students for reading scores and 1,221 students for math’s scores. The results for the study indicated that in the first grade the average reading scores for Latinos was lower by 13 points in comparison to the white students. The black student’s average score was also 6 points lower than the white students score. By the fourth grade, the Latinos reading gap was slightly reduced by one while the black American score had increased by two values (Ellison & Swanson, 2010). Thus, they illustrate the existing civic achievement gap between the lower and higher social economic status students. According to G. W. Evans and Rosenbaum, (2008) the civic achievement gap between the minority and majority groups can be reduced. Evans & Rosenbaum analyzed information from schools (97 public schools) serving a population of 40,000 students in an effort of determining the possibility to reduce existing gaps in achievement in civic knowledge between the minority and higher SES students. This was to be achieved through educational measures such as the implementation of standards based education in civic knowledge and other subject areas. The results illustrated that curriculum reforms ought to greatly reduce the existing gap in performance between the lower and higher social economic status. The National Report Card (NAEP) is involved in reporting student’s information after every 4 years since 1971. According to the statistics in the information, the trends in the average score of reading and score gaps for the black and white students showed greater disparities between the two groups. Each age level shows that there exists a remarkable gap in civic gap achievement (Cooper, 2007). According to the statistics, the average reading score for a 13-year-old student compared to a Black American of the same age in 1971 was estimated to be a difference of 39 points. However, recently according to the recent statistics of 2005, the civic achievement gap has narrowed to a difference of 18 points. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) shows that the gap in achievement between the minority students and the white students continues to widen up and appropriate strategies need to be put in place (M Levinson, 2007). Factors Relating to the Achievement Gap Various reasons have been given for reason of the civic achievement gap between the lower and higher social economic status students (Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010). However, none of the factors has proven to be effective. One of the proposed reasons for the existence of civic achievement gaps is tracking. Tracking is a significant contributor of the existing achievement gap between the minority and majority groups. It is a process that students are divided into categories or groups so that they are assigned to various kinds of classes (R. Evans, 2005). This is a major contributor of existing disparities especially between black American and whites students. When students are placed in these groups, predictable characteristics are created among the groups. Students will be identified in a public way according to their accomplishments and intellectual capabilities and will be separated according to the groups hierarchical systems (Burris & Welner, 2005). The groups will also be labeled quite openly to be of some certain type or have certain capabilities. Low-income blacks and Latino students grouped together will spend most of their studies out of school. They also have a tendency of taking low-track academic courses as compared to other white and Asian student who have a higher social economic status. This contributes more to the civic achievement gap between the low and higher social economic status students as their choices in school will affect their careers (Becker & Luthar, 2002). Another factor attributed to the civic achievement gap is poverty. It is citied to be the major cause of the achievement gap between the lower and higher social economic status students. However poverty occurs in all races and in all countries (Buckhalt, 2011). By the percentage of those families and children affected by poverty in the US the highest percentage are among the minority groups. Poor families will not take their children in good schools contributing further to the achievement gap (Pope, Stolte, & Cohen, 2011). The minority groups are normally subjects and victims of lowered expectation from teachers and negative attitude from administrators. Thus being the recipients of a lowered expectation from the school personnel the lower social economic status children and groups will often experience discouragement and alienation in school resulting to poor performance. Other students will fell discouraged and drop out of school increasing the existing civic achievement gap between the higher and lower social economic status students (Editors, 2011). Racism has been in existence in America since the nation’s inception. A racial achievement gap exists in the educational system that rottenly viewed as a product of the history in racism in the country in conjunction with the manifestations of discrimination and prejudice on the minority groups. Structural and social concerns such as socioeconomic disparities and racism are directed towards each other individual (Lee, 2002). Minority students like the black and Filipinos lack the motivation to perform well in their academics. The parents also lack the devotion on involving their children to education. This widens the gap between the lower and higher social economic status students. Recognition of the existence of racism, discrimination and prejudice is essential in elimination of the existing civic achievement gap. An intervention needs to be developed to remedy the disconnect of racism and reactions that are important to the students’ academic success (Editors, 2011). Achievement Gap Closing Strategies There is little publication relating to the strategies in bridging the gap in civic achievement gap between lower and higher social economic status students (Reardon, 2011). However, common practices in bridging the gap includes establishing high expectations for all the stakeholders in the school, provision of a discipline program, utilization of information to ensure continuous achievement. Provision of regular assessment, provision of support in the learning process, provision of equal opportunities to all the students, employment and empowerment of highly trained and qualified teachers as well as setting measurable objectives and goals to facilitate the learning process are also essential (Haycock, 2001). It is important to ensure that effective schools are provided as a solution to achievement gaps in civic understanding between the lower and higher social economic status students (Ferguson, Stellar, Schools, & Morganton, 2010). An effective school is a school where all students are considered to be equal and will learn regardless of the multicultural or diversity of the population of the other students and the teachers. All children whether rich or poor, black or white have a right to learn the essential concepts, skills and knowledge that is needed so that they can be successful persons in their future (Becker & Luthar, 2002). According to Wested, (2006) some of the correlates of bridging the civic achievement gap include having instructional leadership, provision of a safe and orderly environment, monitoring of the students’ progress as well as provision of equal opportunities for all the students to learn. When schools are improved on the basis of being effective schools, the proportion of students bound to achieve academic excellence will improve (Whittington, 2004). It is essential to guide improvements that can be achieved by the utilization of the Total Quality Management process that will be achieved when problems are identified and course of action undertaken. Team based problem solving is very essential in developing solutions to the civic achievement gaps (Brown & Benkovitz, J., Muttillo, A.J., Urban, 2011). Effective Leaders and Closing the Achievement Gap Effective leadership has a positive impact on a variety of factors that have an indirect effect on the student’s achievements. School leaders need to continuously learn about the factors that positively impact on the students learning. Leadership is bound to affect the student’s success and achievement through the open school environment (Smith, 2009). Leadership need to recognize the minority groups understand their needs and provide providing an efficient educational program. Leadership should be aimed at transforming schools by fostering a powerful teaching and learning environment for all the students (Leithwood, 2010). Strategies of leadership to help in bridging the civic gap between lower and higher social economic status students include: 1. Engaging teachers in the creation of a supportive learning environment. This is by establishment of goals, standards, utilizing a mix of leadership actions and holding the teachers accountable and responsible for their actions. 2. Enhancing the student’s engagement through the creation of higher levels of student participation and provision of extra support of learning. 3. Raising the teacher’s expectations so that the students can achieve high educational levels and provision of standard test score. 4. Developing strong connections with the relevant stakeholders by building strong relationships with the community and parents and selling the vision of high expectation to their children irrespective of the social economic status (Leithwood, 2010). Conclusion One of the most explosive and serious issues in the United States is the disparity of the civic achievement gap between the culturally and linguistically diverse students in the country. If the recent level of educational achievement continues, a number of American students i.e. poor African Americans, native Americans, Asians and Hispanic Americans will not obtain the necessary educational that is essential for the students full participation in the civic and economic life in the country. There is a need to build a data driven educational framework to encourage academic educational growth for all the students. Before building the framework social studies educators need to examine the factors that affect the student’s achievement. These factors include tracking, poverty, discrimination, prejudice and negative attitude among the lower and minority social economic status students. common practices in bridging the achievement gap includes establishing high expectations for all the stakeholders in the school, provision of a discipline program, utilization of information to ensure continuous achievement. Provision of regular assessment, provision of support in the learning process, provision of equal opportunities to all the students, employment and empowerment of highly trained and qualified teachers, ensuring appropriate leadership as well as setting measurable objectives and goals to facilitate the learning process are essential. References Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Scribner, J. P. (2007). Teacher Quality, Opportunity Gap, and National Achievement in 46 Countries. Educational Researcher. Becker, B. E., & Luthar, S. S. (2002). Social-Emotional Factors Affecting Achievement Outcomes Among Disadvantaged Students: Closing the Achievement Gap. Educational Psychologist. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3704_1 Brown, K. M., & Benkovitz, J., Muttillo, A.J., Urban, T. (2011). Leading Schools of Excellence and Equity : Documenting Effective Strategies in Closing Achievement Gaps. Teachers College Record, 113, 57–96. Buckhalt, J. A. (2011). 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