Globalization and English as a Global Language - Literature review Example

Globalization and English as a Global Language At present the Olympics are in full spate. In the opening ceremony the acting president of Brazil addressed the billions around the world, not in his native Portuguese, but in English. This is what is expected in the modern world and it is what is effective . Not every politician or international businessman speaks English, or does so with fluency, but their translators do. It is a modern day necessity in these days of increased globalization and international trade to communicate in only a very few of the world’s languages, and English in particular. Think of international groups such as the Council of Europe, where many of those involved speak English at a functional level, if not as a first language. Many of these people are using EFL, that is English as a Foreign Language. English is also having an effect on their mother tongues. Bruthiaux ( 2008) pointed out that very few writers on this topic actually include a definition, or their personal understanding, on what is meant by the term. Scholte however ( 2002) entitled his paper ‘What is Globalization? The Definitional Issue - Again?’ His argument is that knowledge about globalization is a function of how the term is defined. Scholte rejects a number of definitions which have been put forward in favour of saying globalization is the spread of transplanetary connections between people, which certainly works as a definition and which doesn’t include blame. Giddens, in 1996, thought that many who used the term had no real and definite understanding of the concept. On the other hand, instead of saying what globalization is, many writers tend, and prefer, to describe its effects. Kachru for instance ( page 139, 1994) claimed that almost all languages have been affected , and the differences are only a matter of degree. Sopa (2002) admitted ‘ We don’t know what globalization is , but we have to act..’ Omoniyi ( 2006 actually describes his paper as a reaction to globalization. Part of the process of globalization is of course linked to the wide adoption of the English language at least as a lingua franca. Yet England is a small country and no longer has an empire, although it and its culture and language still have huge world-wide influence, far beyond its size. Not that everyone speaks British English - we live in a world with American English, British English, Australian English, Malaysian English, Indian English and many other forms, and on occasions these may vary so much from the original that they must be read or listened too with great care if communication is to be effective . This even applies within the United Kingdom when certain accents and dialects are used. The term usually applied to these variations, especially those outside North America and the United Kingdom, is ‘world Englishes’ ( Karchru, 1985), so somewhat different from EFL. These people operate in English, but it varies somewhat to what one would hear and used by the majority in Britain or North America. Among the reasons for this are distance and a lack of interchange. Also the fact that the teachers may never have been to Britain, and , because of local circumstances ,words are needed which are not required by the majority. Even long established American English is a variation, taking into account differences in plant life, animals, and the influence of immigrants from many places, as well as the native peoples who were there long before English speakers arrived. According to Kilickaya ( 2009) :- What matters most seems to be the intelligibility of the uses of English in different countries or regions, not just in national boundaries. Globalization is a term which can be used in a number of different ways. Garrett (2010) states that its meaning is ‘vague and elusive, and which is consequently open to variable interpretations.’ He looked at public ideas about globalization from a number of countries , and , as might be expected, recorded a variety of perceptions. He describes three types of professional and academic ideas on the topic. The hyperglobalizers see it as a new stage of human development which is beyond nation states. They therefore see one world market which affects people right round the globe. Those whom Garrett describes as transformationalists are those who concede that there are a number of other influences than just market forces. They see the process as one of making connections in a changing society. According to Zimmerling ( 2005) academics tend to belong to this group. Then there are what Garrett ( 2010) describes as sceptics. These are those who see governments rather than trade as the biggest influences. Fishman ( 2000) uses the phrase ‘killer language’ of English, but also asks if it is just a passing phase. In one sense the latter is almost certainly true. After all we no longer all use Latin or ancient Greek. An extended phase, but a passing phenomenon nevertheless. Fishman ( page 13, 2000) says that whatever the reason behind it, whether imperialism or a more benign globalization, the fact that English usage is spreading is undeniable. He mentions a reaction, local anxiety and the promotion and revival of local languages. Block ( page 75, 2003) cites Giddens ( 1990) as having said that globalization is :- The intensification of worldwide social relationships which link distant localities in such a way that local events are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.’ There are a number of other views linked with the idea of globalization . Some see it as beginning when new lands were discovered by Western explorers such as Vasco de Gama in the 15th and 16th centuries. But long before that it is known that there was widespread trade between nations many centuries before the common era, as Dollinger reported citing examples from countries such as Persia and Egypt ( 2000) . Precious substances such as lapis lazuli were traded right across the Old World as long ago as the Stone Age ( Ejuljee, 2005). Those ancient people would not have had a common language , yet this too was an early form of globalization, although it is true that it is much more obvious, and extensive in more recent years. McKay and Bokhurst-Heng (2008) describe the idea of it creating a level playing field, giving all English speakers equal opportunities when it comes to global trade, and also to the dissemination of ideas. Another idea suggested by Block is that it is ‘a done deal’ - with companies such a McDonalds being found right round the world, but as Fox News stated in 2016, there are still countries where McDonalds does not trade, and visit a country such as France, where , although the restaurants are to be found, they are few in comparison to other cafes and restaurants, and not to be found except in large cities. Things are rather more uneven than that , with Amazonian tribes, or some people in Papua New Guinea comparatively untouched by outside influences, and even in thoroughly westernised societies there are always groups and individuals who reject the majority view, as with the Amish in America. Block’s next point is that some see globalization as a good thing, whereas others see it as imposing Western ideas on the rest of the world. The answer perhaps is that it can be both good and bad – better communications and transport, but a negative impact upon local cultures perhaps. Also it works both ways – ask how many eat Thai curry or do yoga exercises. Yes we can see American television, but this can also mean a deliberate rejection of some things we see on it. Should the word be used to describe the promotion of a particular way of life, or should it only be used to describe the process that is going on all around us? Perhaps a new word is needed. Bolton (2010) considered the effect globalization has had upon the teaching of English since the 1960s, at which time such teaching was concerned almost only with literature from America and England, but has since expanded to include works from a variety of Englishes round the world, and , in most cases, has moved a long way from the curriculums of a generation earlier, and now includes a much wider variety or genres and media. The opposite of globalization can be described as localization. This takes place when a widespread aspect is adapted to fit conditions , such as when an American based company with branches in many countries, finds it most effective if it has web sites in the languages of all the countries involved. It might mean adapting products to fit in with cultural norms as when McDonalds . the fast food restaurant chain, promised to respect the vegetarian family values of Indian clients, by making a promise that there would be neither beef or pork on its menus in the country ( Kannan 2014 ) When it comes to interviewing three English speakers as to their ideas on globalization and localization I thought first of a young man who, at the age of only six weeks old, went to live at SHAPE in Belgium, an international defence base where people of many nations work together. Despite its location the main language used at work and socially on the base was English, because it was originally founded by Americans, although there were translators. So language is adapted to need . If everyone in a group speaks French then French is used for instance, but general notices are in American English.. As he learned to talk he picked up bits of many different languages, some of which he studied academically later, and now, he works as a translator for his government, having studied languages at university. He sees globalization as a positive thing, but at the same time has an appreciation for the cultures of many different people groups, and sees this and localization to fit in with local norms as adding positives and variety to life. Some of the people he met as a child only spoke a little English, but all were trying to communicate and it is this need to communicate across the world that is he feels driving globalization, whether it is because of business and trade expansion, or because of the spread of certain ideas among likeminded people. My second interviewee is an older man Dean. Now settled not far from the town where he was born, he has in the past lived in both Mauritius and in Asia, and has a working knowledge of several languages. When I asked him about globalisation Dean saw it in the main as a positive, seeing it as a sharing of resources, whether in physical form or in the way of ideas. I said what did he think about the possible negatives such as the replacement of traditional ways, but, although he conceded that this was possible unless there is some degree of localization, he feels that people will continue to hold on to what they considered to be important, while at the same time taking advantage of what they see as valuable from other countries and cultures. He uses the English Language he grew up with, but in the past was able to interact with students and colleagues who spoke other languages and several varieties of English different to his own. My third interviewee was Do-Yun, a Korean by birth, who is doing a master’s degree in engineering at an Australian university. Do-Yun has been in Australia for 4 years now. Although the Internet only became wide spread in the 1990’s Do-Yun is in his late 20s and so has hardly known anything else. There are many foreign students at the university and he wonders how much their language and ideas are different from an older generation who did not have so widespread or instant communications. His own English is quite good, although he retains a distinctive accent and occasionally struggles with Australian idioms. He knows that many other students struggle with the language at times. He has noticed how many of them consult the Internet with great frequency during lectures, checking in their own language what is being said. Do –Yun sees reverse globalization as a positive thing , because he values his Korean heritage and wants to share it with his non –Korean friends, so he cooks for them, and even sings Korean songs at the Karaoke. On the other hand he enjoys much about the life style he find all around him in Australia. He hopes to marry an Australian wife very soon, an Australian lady of Anglo-Irish heritage whom he met when they both arrived as new students. If they have children the pair intend them to bring them up with a knowledge of Australian culture of course, but also will teach them about Korea, with its stories and customs. So as a couple they will localize their home cultures within Australia Do –yun cannot hide his Korean features and has faced some racial prejudice, but he copes well with it, remaining cheerful, and understands that some people are nervous about incoming foreigners, worrying about such things as the impact on employment, or getting fed up with people taking university places and then returning home without contributing to the country which gave them an education. Globalization can seem to be a negative, when you walk down a high street far from your home country, and see store after store full of western fast food. But walk round the corner and there is a thriving market selling local food. The use of English as a lingua franca she feels is a positive if it helps people from a variety of cultures and situations to communicate with others who may have somewhat different backgrounds and ideas. When communicating with this group who mainly speak Arabic, or closely related languages, she uses Arabic in greetings, or to say simple things such as ‘Thank you’ in order to build bridges. She also discusses with members of the group how they would say something in their home language. Stories from their home cultures are among those used as a basis for lessons. Often they will use English and insert an Arabic word for one they don’t know, and she does the reverse. This fits into what Xu Zaichang said in 2009 about other languages being Anglicized and the reverse. She loves the English language, but at the same time sees it as a very useful tool and sees globalization as working in more than one way. Within the group the internet is widely used – as when checking the meaning of a word which is difficult to explain to non-English speakers who use a number of different home languages. The widespread use of English can be seen as creating a world which is more homogenised, as cited by Bruniaux ( p. 16.2008) all becoming a little too much the same, but this is countered in a positive way by the fact that globalization and better communication between groups leads to a greater understanding and tolerance of ideas and practices which are somewhat different to those in our home situations. Bruniaux ( page 16, 2008) also mentions writers who describe globalization as being a positive force because it allow people to break away from existing social structures which may have been holding them back. He also describes how it can have a positive effect upon the preservation of local languages and dialects as this is done in an attempt to resist the effects of globalization. Welsh is one of many examples, with many schools in the principality now teaching in Welsh medium, and the numbers doing this increasing over time. (Wrexham County Borough Council, 2016) . Phillipson and Karmani ( page 244, 2005) discuss what they describe as English linguistic imperialism which other nations are supposedly thought to accept passively. Surely it is more active than that? People deliberately choose to use English, even when not interacting with English based companies and organisations, but when interacting with other groups with a different language from their own, even in the same country or part of the world. I think of India with its English medium newspapers. You would think these would have disappeared with the end of colonialism, but they continue., and new ones are arriving, such as India News , established only in 1998. This is a pragmatic choice as it cuts across differences in mother tongue languages amongst its demographic readership, favouring none over another. Phillipson (page 244, 2005) describes a perception in India that English is a language which opens door and he describes how even poor people want their children to go to an English medium school. It is not being imposed upon them by a small post - imperialistic Britain, but a conscious choice on their part. It suits what they want in life. This is rather different from a globalization which takes no account of local needs and cultures , but instead seeks to impose its own ideas where they are not wanted. Consider a global company such as McDonalds ( 2016) the global fast food giants. In many countries they offer first of all beef burgers, something not acceptable in a country where Hinduism is the majority religion. What they offer is a menu adapted, at least to some extent , to local tastes, and , if the Indian people rejected its offerings, then it would withdraw from the country as it has elsewhere. So people have a choice in many instances. Not always though. If you wish to work for certain companies at anything higher than the very lowest level you may find it necessary to be able to communicate in some form of English in order to communicate with colleagues in other branches or head office. This is globalization, but it is also cross border communication which must be a positive, and nor is it totally disregarding people’s culture. We are people of the world as well as being the people of the place we were born in. Rubdy ( 2009) though concentrates on the opposite view, discussing the widespread effect in particularly post-colonial countries of an increased desire to use English. This he says ( p 156, 2009) :- Fostered the negative effects of dominance , divisiveness and difference in world social relations , resulting in the suppression and devaluation of local forms of knowledge and practice. Rubdy argues for a rethinking about English so that it is informed by local ideas, cultures and norms. It could be contended that this is something which happens naturally, as people using English in their own local situations, do adapt it, both as individuals , and as a wider community, according to their needs. Hominyi ( 2006 describes well the fluidity of modern society and how there is a process of continuous interaction between different groups. They may for instance have things which cannot be easily translated, so they retain their word, which would be understood within their community, and simply insert these in a sentence which is in the main in English. The person listening is able to understand the majority and can often infer the rest, or ask for this to be explained. This is similar to what happens when one speaks to a small child. The mother realises that the child hasn’t understood perhaps one thing, so goes on to explain that in other words. The reverse certainly happens as when one hears a conversation in a language such as Italian or Hindi which contains an English noun for something not normally part of Italian or Hindi cultures. There is also the question of the promotion of other languages, as described by Fishman (page 13, 2000)., and fits in with the ideas of our first interviewee. Fishman mentions support for their own languages, including great investment, by France, Germany and Malaysia. He describes how languages with even less than a million users are receiving funding. He feels that regional languages will actually become more important as localised lingua francas are used to reach widening groups of people by writers, businesses and even relief agencies. These will overcome very local languages known to relatively small numbers. Yet in 1984 the European Union created the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages ( cited by Fishman, page 13 , 2000) . The aim was to protect the language rights of the many Europeans, some 50 million of them, who speak a minority language. This they may do, but almost all will also use a regional language such as French , Spanish or German, and the television they watch is most likely to be in both their regional language and in American or British English, even if with sub-titles. In the past half century and more the world has changed considerably. Borders have moved or disappeared, new countries been created and people have moved en bloc, both because they are forced to do so, or of their own violition, as well as in smaller groups which trickle into new places. And we now have a number of agreements and of institutions which have influence in almost every country. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) for instance knows no boundaries, but sees all humans as of value and which declares that ‘it is essential to develop friendly relations between nations. Having a common means of communication is an important part of that. Conclusion Globalization with its many positives and negatives has proved hard to define, especially with regard to its causes and effects. There were a number of instances where localization of language has been found to be the best option , even in global companies. For a number of reasons, the world is becoming smaller in the sense that we have better transport links, greater media coverage, extensive and easier world trade, as well as a number of international agreements such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the development groups such as the United Nations, both emerging in the years after the widespread devastation of the Second World War. This increase in global links and influences does not necessarily take away from individualization, or the values of particular cultures, but it does mean that a common means of communication is needed. English in its many forms has taken on that role, sometimes as a deliberate choice, in some cases in more subtle ways. This doesn’t necessarily mean that everyone has adopted English or American cultures and values in more than a minimal way, but that they can use its language to communicate, especially perhaps with those from different backgrounds to their own, and to express themselves, their ideas , desires and just about anything. If this is seen as a positive it will continue. If it is seen in negative terms it will be replaced by some other system and language use, but this seems so unlikely at present. References Bolton, K.,( 2010), Creativity and World Englishes, World Englishes , Vol 29, No 4 pp 455-466 Block .D., (2003), Key concepts in ELT: Globalization and language teaching , ELT Journal 58(1) pages 75-77. 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Zimmerling, R.,( 2005), Globalization and democracy, Tampere, Finland, Tampere University Press. Read More