Practice of Teaching: Self-esteem in Dyslexic Students within a Classroom Setting - Essay Example

 Introduction During the practice of teaching, teachers come across several types of challenges, the effective management of which determine success in teaching. Dyslexic students pose one of the most difficult challenges in the practice of teaching. It is therefore essential for a practicing teacher to understand and reflect on the problems of dyslexic students and the ways of dealing with the related issues that arise. As dyslexia is a serious problem facing many students in the contemporary educational system, it is essential to have a clear-cut knowledge about this issue as well as on the ways to deal with it. It is essential for educators to make instructional adjustments in order to make dyslexic students cope with and be successful in an academic environment. Building self-esteem in such students with dyslexia is the key to helping them overcome their devalued feelings of anxiety and frustration, and such remedial measures need great attention. This paper undertakes a reflective analysis of the issues confronted by dyslexic students on the basis of a review of literature on the topic, with a focus on self-esteem in dyslexic students within a classroom setting. It includes a profound analysis of how the teacher can make the classroom dyslexia-friendly and the lessons more accessible to dyslexic student. It also attempts to investigate how structured, multisensory teaching, which in turn helps to raise self-esteem of these children, can help children to develop literacy skills more quickly Dyslexia and Dyslexic Students In the contemporary situation of teaching practice, many otherwise effective teachers find themselves unable to deal with the issue of low self-esteem of dyslexic students, and dyslexia still remains a confusing term for most educators despite the fact that an estimated 10-15 percent of the general population has dyslexia. Significantly, teachers and reading specialists are frequently uncertain of the exact definition of dyslexia as well as their legal and ethical responsibilities concerning this learning disability. There are also several other issues confronted by educators dealing with dyslexic students, which will be considered later. It is therefore essential to seek to end the confusion regarding the issue of dyslexic students by first defining dyslexia in definite terms and identify the characteristics of students with dyslexia as well as the ways in which the needs of dyslexic students can be met in regular classrooms. Dyslexia may be regarded as “a learning difference, a combination of strengths and weaknesses, which affect the learning process in reading, spelling, writing and sometimes number and calculation. Dyslexic learners may also have accompanying weaknesses in short-term memory, sequencing and the speed at which they process information.” (TTRB, p. 23) Dyslexia affects the skills of information processing, in particular working memory of the student, as well as phonological awareness, labelling, rapid naming and the speed of processing. It also results in the failure to develop language and literacy skills to the expected level. In a careful analysis of various significant researches on dyslexia, it becomes lucid that it is a disorder that has been defined in different ways and the different definitions of the term ‘dyslexia’ reflect the wide range of theories and perspectives, which have been useful in explaining this difficulty in literacy. Whereas the definition of dyslexia differs considerably, according to the International Dyslexia Association, “Dyslexia is a language-based, neurobiological learning disability in which an individual has difficulty with word recognition, spelling, and decoding.” Another important way to define dyslexia is to comprehend it as “a disorder of constitutional origin manifested by difficulty in learning to read, write or spell despite conventional instruction, adequate intelligence, and socio-cultural opportunity.” (Baltimore 1988, p. 2) According to Kamhi (1992), dyslexia is a lifelong problem with processing phonological information, which involves encoding, retrieving and using phonological codes, and deficiencies in speech production and phonological awareness. (Kamhi 1992, p. 48-52) Therefore, it is essential for educators dealing with dyslexic students to understand that dyslexia is a difficulty not with intelligence but with the process of learning, in particular language acquisition. Dyslexia can therefore be best comprehended as a learning difficulty, which manifests above all as a difficulty with reading and spelling. However, dyslexia needs to be realised as separate and distinct from the reading difficulties caused by other deficiencies including the non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing. Therefore, it is essential to understand it as resulting from differences in how the brain processes written and spoken language. Also, experts on the topic of dyslexia normally make a distinction between developmental dyslexia and acquired dyslexia. The origin of the developmental dyslexia is suspected to be congenital or hereditary, whereas acquired dyslexia has been comprehended as a disability, which occurs as the result of brain injury after learning to read. It is also important to realise that most of the students with dyslexia in regular classrooms are reportedly affected with developmental dyslexia. It is believed that the developmental dyslexia affecting students is normally connected to brain and chromosome differences. Understanding Dyslexia A profound understanding of the various learning difficulties associated with dyslexia can help educators in providing effective remedial measures to improve the self esteem of dyslexic students and the various definitions of dyslexia offer them an essential knowledge about the different aspects of this learning deficiency. “Class teachers need to have an understanding of the problems that the dyslexic child may have within the classroom situation. Hopefully, with this knowledge, a great deal of misunderstanding of a child's behaviour can be prevented. In a positive and encouraging environment, a dyslexic child will experience the feeling of success and self-value.” (Hodge 2000) In a reflective analysis of the literature on this specific learning difficulty, an educator gains vital guidelines of the effective measures to deal with the problem. Thus, according to the Orton Dyslexic Society, which defines dyslexia as a specific learning difficulty that affects phonological development, word decoding, word recognition, reading, spelling, and writing, “dyslexia should not be the outcome of limited educational/social opportunities or other conditions (e.g. sensory impairment). In other words, poor learning progress should not be attributed to children’s school and home based learning experiences or any other aspects of their social context.” (Hartas 2006, p. 10). Therefore, by comprehending the exact meaning and idea of dyslexia, an educator dealing with the issues of the dyslexic students can effectively bring about measures, which have a positive effect on the learning experiences of such students. Understanding dyslexia as a learning difficulty usually leads to the perception that something may be ‘wrong’ with the learner, and so the teacher’s focus shifts from praising the strengths of the child to identifying his or her weaknesses. In the UK, it is currently believed that dyslexic students process information differently from other children. In his book ‘Dyslexia Way of Thinking’, the author Steven Milner (2006), himself a dyslexic, shows in section two, how “dyslexia is not a disability but a way of thinking.” Thus, if the teacher takes this difference in processing information into account, these students can learn more effectively, although perhaps more slowly in comparison to those who are not dyslexic. Regardless of the perception, students with dyslexia require remediation by specialist teachers. Class teachers need to be supported by specialists who can intervene and provide help appropriate to the needs of dyslexic students. Also, evidence from significant research on the topic suggests that if dyslexia is not identified early, it can affect the child in a vicious manner, and can lead from learning to behavioural problems and to increased learning disability. This in turn limits access to the school curriculum, continuing education, and employment. So, it is essential to know that several learning problems arise if a teacher fails to recognise dyslexia at the right time, as it also makes the standard teaching method inappropriate for the dyslexic child. The problems associated with dyslexia are often a result of a phonological deficit. Consequently, people with dyslexia frequently have secondary problems in reading comprehension, vocabulary growth, and development of background knowledge. Dyslexia is not due to a lack of intelligence. Rather, a gap between potential and achievement exists.” (Wadlington and Wadlington 2005, p. 16) On the other hand, it is essential to realise that the students with dyslexia often display exceptional strengths that need to be boosted. “Individuals with dyslexia frequently display outstanding strengths; many dyslexics are creative, visual thinkers. Their unique abilities often make them successful in art, science and technical fields. Some famous and talented people who are suspected to have had dyslexia include Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Leonardo da Vinci, Winston Churchill, George Patton and William Butler Yeats.” (Wadlington, Jacob, and Bailey 1996, p. 2). A profound understanding of dyslexia therefore has a central role in determining the effective remedial measures undertaken by educators. Significantly, dyslexia is a major learning deficiency encountered in the practice of teaching and it is important that teachers and other educators in this practice undertake vital steps to deal with this issue. The specific difficulties associated with dyslexic students stress the importance of effective measures by teachers in a classroom environment. Dyslexia and the Practice of Teaching One of the essential challenges facing people in the practice of teaching is the issue of dyslexic students and it is necessary for educators to have a thorough awareness and understanding of dyslexia. “Since many students with dyslexia are in regular classrooms, their teachers are often overwhelmed trying to help these students without neglecting others.” (Wadlington, Jacob & Bailey, 1996, p. 2) Moreover, Reid (1998) found that teachers dealing with dyslexic children tend to have higher levels of psychological stress when they have little knowledge and understanding of strategies for managing dyslexia. In a reflective analysis of the social, emotional and behavioural aspects of dyslexia, it becomes evident that the role of a teacher who caters to the various needs of dyslexic students is essential for effective teaching practice in the classroom. One of the most important responsibilities of educators is to try to meet the individual needs of all students. But this task is made even more difficult when the student has a diagnosed learning difficulty. Therefore, the teacher has a fundamental role in dealing with the issues faced by dyslexic students. Educators in the practice of teaching have a central role to play in handling various student disabilities including dyslexia, and their attitude as well as the strategies they adopt in dealing with the problem has a significant influence on the effective management of the disability. According to various scholars such as Hellendoorn & Ruijssenaars (2000, p. 227-239), students with learning and reading difficulties due to dyslexia often report that the educators’ attitudes affect how they perceive themselves as well as their success in school and life to an extreme degree. The various significant studies in the area of dyslexia as a learning difficulty suggest that students are at great discrepancies between the views of educators and that of their own regarding their scholastic competence and such inconsistencies of views severely limit the functioning of the students in various courses. (Carlisle & Andrews 1993, p. 217-37) It has been concluded in various important studies that several students develop social and emotional problems such as low self-esteem, frustration, helplessness, stigma, and depression etc, mainly due to their school experiences, which are the results of the attitudes and perceptions of educators. (Riddick, 1995, p. 457-473) It is essential for the teacher to design a constructive and successful teaching programme to deal with the special needs of students and the educator needs to be emphatic about the incorporation of various resources, which can effectively enhance the student’s learning. In other words, the strategy adopted by each teacher in dealing with the challenges of dyslexic students has a pertinent role in their effective learning. In the design of such a teaching programme, “Each dyslexic individual has a unique profile of strengths and weaknesses in learning. The special education teacher must skilfully design a teaching programme tailored to each student. The dyslexic student will have specific needs, and each of these needs will have a different priority at any one time. The special education teacher, therefore, must integrate different resources that will successfully enhance the individual’s learning.” (Townend and Turner 2000, p. 77) Whereas several programmes of remediation have been available in the practice of teaching, it is essential to have a programme with a progressive, structured, and cumulative design. In compiling an effective teaching programme for dyslexic students, the teacher needs to make an allowance for the following elements, which determine the success of such a programme. a. Age and ability of the particular student with dyslexia b. A highly cumulative, multisensory, and structured teaching programme of reading and spelling. c. Teaching materials and approaches that support and complement an individualised teaching programme which cater to the specific needs of each dyslexic student. d. A balance between the student’s long-term needs and short-term needs by comprehending the student’s learning disability with regard to the specific stage of his educational career. e. Inclusion of the principle of over-learning at every stage of the student’s learning career. f. Assessment of the student’s self-esteem and self-belief. g. The possibility of enhancing the self-esteem of students. Self-Esteem in Dyslexic Students In a regular classroom, it is the dyslexic children who frequently suffer due mainly to the attitude of the teachers as well as their own low self-esteem. The educator who is not aware of the issues of students with dyslexia may consider the student as slow and unmotivated, due to lack of understanding of the students’ learning process. The misconceptions of the educators can lead to low self-esteem of the dyslexic student. Self-esteem is part of one’s self-concept, which includes self-image, ideal self and self-esteem. It is important to relate here that the self-concept of an individual includes every aspect of how he views and thinks about himself. The self-concept of an individual is learned, not inherited, and it is formed early in one’s life. An individual’s self-concept is also influenced by how significant others see, behave towards and value him. These significant others include parents and family, teachers, friends, peer group etc. Self-esteem can be comprehended as the value one individual places upon himself, and it is also understood as self-worth. Self-esteem of an individual is formed when the two pictures of self-image and ideal-self are brought together. One of the prime responsibilities of a teacher dealing with dyslexic students is to improve their self-esteem through effective teaching strategies. The role of the teacher in designing an effective teaching strategy for the successful learning of the students with dyslexia is indubitable and any teaching programme designed to meet the needs of these students should give due emphasis on improving the self-esteem of students. The main duty of an educator dealing with dyslexic students is to recognise the fact that such students process information differently than other children. Once the teachers are able to take this difference in the learning style of the students into account, they can effectively help the dyslexic students in learning effectively, although perhaps more slowly in relation to literacy. Thus, the teacher needs to adopt strategies that make the classroom dyslexia-friendly and the lessons more accessible to such students. A teaching programme that adopts a highly structured and multisensory teaching strategy can help children to develop literacy skills more quickly and these strategies also contribute to improving the self-esteem of students. Improving self-esteem has thus been identified above as one of the key ways of dealing with dyslexia. Therefore, it is essential that educators adopt measures that improve the self-esteem of students with dyslexia in order to efficiently manage such learning disabilities. Riddick also maintains that the attitude of educators towards the parents of dyslexic students also affect the process of building the self-esteem of students and such issues arise as parents are often treated like clients rather than partners in the educational process. (Riddick, 1995, pp. 457-473) Most often educators fail to recognize the characteristics and they delay well-timed assessment and assistance of the students when these parents report to them that their young children may have dyslexia. Similarly, local boards of education, very often, do not consider dyslexia as an entity due mainly to the lack of resources required to meet the needs of students with dyslexia. “Consequently, undiagnosed primary children with dyslexia often become increasingly disruptive in order to avoid frustrating school tasks. As they grow older, they may get in serious trouble with the schools and the law because of behaviour problems. On the other hand, sometimes districts are tempted to incorrectly label students as dyslexic to justify poor standardized test scores.” (Wadlington and Wadlington 2005, p. 16) In short, the role of educators in effectively dealing with the issues confronted by dyslexic students is vital and their chief responsibility is to have thorough awareness of the learning disability of dyslexia and adopt measures to improve the self-esteem of dyslexic students. Studies on Self-Esteem in Dyslexic Students One of the most significant conclusions in critical studies on dyslexic students has been that they are usually students who have an extreme lack of self-esteem, which then results in other attitude problems. That is to say, dyslexic students have been found to have lower self-esteem, greater anxiety, and other such issues. The relatively low self-esteem of dyslexic students results in various issues in a classroom setting and it is one of the primary duties of educators to assume measures that improve their self-esteem. According to Neil Humphrey, the units for pupils with specific learning difficulties (SpLd) have a negative impact on the self-esteem of dyslexic students. “British teacher ratings of self-esteem were measured for three groups of children: 23 children with dyslexia attending mainstream schools, 34 children with dyslexia attending units for pupils with specific learning difficulties (SpLd), and 26 typical children. Findings indicate the children attending the SpLd units generally had the lowest self-esteem.” (Humphrey 2002). Therefore, it is essential to adopt strategies that improve the self-esteem of the students and to avoid teaching programmes that adversely affect the self-esteem of dyslexic students. In one of the most noted research papers, namely, ‘Self-esteem and anxiety in the educational histories of adult dyslexic students’, Riddick, Sterling, Farmer, and Morgan (1999) concluded that self-esteem of dyslexic students was considerably lower than that of other students. In their study, they compared self-esteem, anxiety and past and present educational backgrounds of 16 dyslexic university students and 16 matched controls. To measure self-esteem of the participants, the Culture-free Self-esteem Inventory was used, while anxiety was measured with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. For the preparation of the questionnaire for the study, the research team gathered information on past and present educational histories, including a number of questions that could be rated on a five point scale. “The dyslexic group was found to have significantly lower self-esteem than the controls. On the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory there was no significant difference between the groups. On the five-point-rating scales the dyslexic group reported themselves as feeling more anxious and less competent in their written work at school than the controls and rated themselves at university as less competent both in their written work and in their academic achievements.” (Riddick, Sterling, Farmer, and Morgan 1999, p. 227). Therefore, it has been proved in several significant researches that lack of self-esteem is a major issue confronting the dyslexic students and it is the major responsibility of the teachers to help these students in developing their self-esteem. In the contemporary educational setting, dyslexia has been topic of considerable discussion and several studies have proved the lack of self-esteem in dyslexic students. Whilst there have been suggestions that such a learning problem does not exist and that it is simply ‘reading failure’ under another name, the scale of the problem remains very serious. According to several studies, 10-12% of an age group are affected with this learning difficulty and 2-3% of them can be regarded as damaged by it. It is also notable that dyslexia is often connected with other serious disorders which all operate in harmony to make serious problems for children. There are various factors contributing to dyslexia which in turn result in low self-esteem in dyslexic students. Significantly, “dyslexics have multiple problems in their schools, their homes and in coping with their difficulties. Often they are of above average intelligence and from ‘good’ middle-class homes, yet they will have reading ages two or three years below where they should be. This breeds intense frustration among the children themselves – they know they have the ability ‘inside’ as it were, but are blocked in achieving anything. This frustration affects dyslexics’ self-image, their self-esteem and their capacity to make relationships, which is built on possessing a positive view of themselves. You cannot love another unless you love yourself and dyslexics find loving themselves very hard.” (Western Mail, 2005, p. 40) Therefore, an educator needs to recognise that it is his important duty to improve the self-esteem of dyslexic students who are affected by low self-confidence, bad self-image, and low capacity to make healthy relationships. Strategies to Improve the Self-Esteem of Dyslexic Students One of the most essential factors that distinguish good classroom managers is their success in preventing problems from arising in the first place rather than the special skills in dealing with problems once they crop up. In order to attain this significant status of a good classroom manager, a teacher needs to protect and enhance the self-esteem of pupils, who feel very bad about themselves and have little respect for others. According to experts in the field, it is most fundamental to adopt measures by educators that strengthen the self-esteem of students with dyslexia, as the lack of self-esteem is a major issue confronted by these students. Researches in the field of self-esteem of slow learners and dyslexic students prove that strategies to improve the self-esteem of the students have a vital role in determining the progress of the learner in his attempts to join social functions. Although the research evidence to date as to the influence of improved self-esteem on cognitive learning is not encouraging, it is essential to improve the self-esteem of students with dyslexia in order to help them participate in the social process of learning. “The need to provide slow learners with experiences designed to increase self-esteem has been stressed, in particular, in social studies programs. Positive self-esteem has been identified as a goal important in itself in a society that values self-actualization. There has been some hope as well that improving self-esteem would enhance student learning of knowledge and concepts. The research evidence to date as to the influence of improved self-esteem on cognitive learning is not particularly positive. However, there do appear to be positive correlations between self-esteem and interest in public affairs, both of which are important social studies goals.” (Curtis and Shaver, 1981, p. 217) Therefore, the educators need to undertake strategies to develop the self-esteem of the slow learners and dyslexic students. There are various ways in which a person in the practice of teaching can positively affect the self-esteem of dyslexic students. The role of measures that improve the self-esteem of students with dyslexia has been widely recognised and one way of achieving their self-esteem is to focus on their outstanding strengths. In order to develop the self-esteem of the students with dyslexia, an educator needs to give vital importance to the strengths of the students, which can instil self-confidence in them. Several significant researches have concluded that the students with dyslexia are extremely talented and the teachers need to encourage them on the basis of their talents. The experience of several educators who deal with dyslexic students has shown that if educators make use of the strengths of dyslexic students they can make considerable changes in the attitude of these students. “Children with dyslexia are often described as having many talents outside of their schoolwork. Educators can utilize these abilities to discover if their students could possibly be suffering from dyslexia. In my experiences, dyslexic students are very bright students who can understand complex problems and tasks when they are presented to them aurally. Ask them to take that knowledge and apply it to paper and all of a sudden a teacher will feel like he or she is talking to a totally different child, one that does not seem to have the same capacity for talking about complex problems.” (Huitt, 1999, p. 6-7) “Once there is understanding of the dyslexic student and the learning process there are some ways to help the dyslexic student in the regular classroom.” (Stines). It is important for the teachers to reach every area of the dyslexic students’ learning and instil confidence in them significantly, positive feedback from the teachers, as well as from the family members and friends, has a crucial role in improving the self-esteem of a dyslexic child. The educator also needs to accentuate the positives and strengths of the students and always be understanding to the students. “Accentuating the positive increases the dyslexic student’s motivation. Dyslexic students learn differently. If there is a certain assignment that is completed, yet not in the exact way as instructed, be sure to accentuate the positive. This will help you instruct the student's completion of the assignment in a motivating way. By letting the student understand the requirements in a positive way this will give the student corrective instruction without frustration.” (Stines). Similarly, understanding the students is an important duty of teachers, because the dyslexic student often appears unmotivated or slow. Lack of understanding of these misconceptions can lead to frustration and low self-esteem in the student. At this point, it is also essential to relate that the self-esteem of dyslexic students can seldom be improved by the provision of special education alone. Furthermore, programmes for pupils with specific learning difficulties and incorporation of the needs of dyslexic students in the general framework of the curriculum have a vital role in dealing with the issues of these students. Further Strategies for Assisting Dyslexic Children Although this research has focused specifically on improving self-esteem in dyslexic students, related strategies deserve a brief mentioning that can also be applied in conjunction with raising self-esteem and within the classroom setting. The teacher’s own self-esteem is also critical to improving the self-esteem of the dyslexic child. If the teacher has low self-esteem, he cannot hope to positively influence anyone else let alone spark their creativity and enthusiasm for learning. A teacher with a high self-esteem is more able to build self-esteem and confidence in all their students whether dyslexic or not. If appropriate, a classroom assistant trained in dealing with dyslexic students can provide greater support and individualised attention. “Individualised teaching for dyslexic students is particularly important at the primary school stage as a means of intervention to prevent a lowering of self-esteem and early recognition of failure.” (Tyres, 2005) The greater use of ICT can help motivate dyslexic students as can the use of synthetic phonics and associating words with pictures because this helps the right brain to form pictures mentally and process words in wholes. Victoria’s approach for teaching dyslexics for example, is to spell is “through ‘drawing’ words and understanding them in wholes, not in their separate parts or separate letters or phonic sounds.” (Hope) In fact, the whole classroom can be made dyslexic friendly and this can extend to the whole school too. In learning through a multisensory approach, all the senses are utilized in order “to relay information to students” (Herold, 2003). This is extremely helpful for dyslexic students who would otherwise feel in a rut with the traditional lecture-worksheet approach. With dyslexics who may have difficulties with responding to visual and auditory stimuli, movement and touch are found to be particularly helpful. Dyslexic student also tend to have problems with keeping things organised, so assistance in this regard would also be helpful. The dyslexic student should be seated near the front of the class rather than the back, and not have to contend with time constraints or made to feel deficient either by the teacher or other students. Again, the focus should be on what has been accomplished and not on the mistakes. All these factors and more besides go into making a dyslexic friendly classroom for the dyslexic child. Such a supportive atmosphere can itself go a long way to raising the dyslexic child’s self-esteem. The implication for teaching is that the practice should be conducted with greater awareness of the problems and needs of all students and tailored to meet those needs including of those who through no fault of their own process information differently from the majority. Conclusions Dyslexia is a serious issue confronting educators in the practice of teaching and the most essential role of a teacher dealing with dyslexic students is in improving the self-esteem of these students. Early identification is essential to avoid deterioration in the child’s academic growth and making them fall behind others, lose their own self-esteem, and fail to achieve their true potential. The same is the need to understand that dyslexic children merely process information differently and usually excel in other ways that can be taken advantage of. The literature review of published research in this field confirms that appropriate academic intervention programmes can have a great role in helping dyslexic students improve their self-esteem. “An appropriate academic intervention program is necessary for students with dyslexia. As inclusive classrooms become increasingly prevalent, more and more teachers will be called upon to meet the needs of students with dyslexia. Teachers should remember that although dyslexia is ‘invisible,’ it is a very real disability. These interventions are meant to give the student with dyslexia an equal chance, not an unfair advantage.” (Wadlington, Jacob, and Bailey 1996, p. 2) Significantly, the teachers normally struggle with balancing the needs of students with dyslexia with those of other students. Therefore, they need to create strategies of their own which can be practical and beneficial in dealing with the issues in classrooms. It is also essential for educators to undertake strategies that develop their awareness of the needs of dyslexic students. Whereas the majority of educators have great interest in learning more about dyslexia, they “must take their responsibility to learn about dyslexia seriously; when training is not readily available, they must seek it out. As educators develop deeper understandings about dyslexia, they will be better equipped to help all students. Consequently, more individuals will be able to attain their true potentials in school and life, and all members of society will benefit.” (Wadlington and Wadlington 2005, p. 16) In conclusion, improving the self-esteem of dyslexic students in the classroom environment is a vital and challenging responsibility of the educators in the practice of teaching. Bibliography BALTIMORE, M. D. (1988). “Definition: Perspectives.” Orton Dyslexia Society. p. 2. CARLISLE, J., & ANDRES, E. (1993). “Monitoring learning-disabled students in mainstream science classes.” Annals of Dyslexia. Issue 43, pp. 217-37. CURTIS, Charles K., and SHAVER, James P. (1981). “Improving Slow Learners' Self-Esteem in Secondary Social Studies Classes.” Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 74, No. 4, p. 217. HARTAS, Dimitra. (2006). Dyslexia in the early years. London: Routledge. P. 10. HELLENDOORN, J., & RUIZSSENAARS, W. 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(2005). “What Educators Really Believe about Dyslexia.” Reading Improvement. Vol. 42, No. 1, p. 16. WESTERN MAIL. (2005). “Dyslexic Children Need Our Support, Not Condemnation or the ‘Chemical Cosh’.” Western Mail. Gale Group, p. 40. Read More